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LECTURES 15-16:
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
 Human Reproduction Outline
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 Male & female reproductive systems

 Physical Structures and their functions
 Gametogenesis
 Gamete structure & function
 Reproductive endocrinology
 Hormonal regulation of male & female gametogenesis
 The principle of negative feedback
 Pregnancy & development
 Fertilization
 Placenta: structure & function
 Foetal development & factors affecting
 Objectives - At the end of this lesson
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you should be able to:
1. Describe the male and female reproductive systems
2. State the function of the components of the
reproductive system
3. Outline the process of gametogenesis in the male
and female systems
4. Describe how gametogenesis is controlled by
hormones
5. Describe the process of fertilization
6. State the functions of the placenta
 Reproductive systems
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Reproduction
 Feature of living things

 Essential for the continuation of a species.

Animals
 Reproduce by two means: asexual and sexual.

Humans
 Only sexual reproduction.

 Dioecious - ♂males & ♀ females are separate

individuals
 Human Reproduction
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Sexual Reproduction
 Involves the fusion of gametes from two different

organisms; fertilization of the female gamete by the

male.
 Gametes are haploid and when they fuse the diploid

condition is established (zygote).

 In humans, gametes are produced by gonads (testes in

males and ovaries in females).

6 Male Reproductive System
 Male Reproductive System
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 Organs specialized for the production

and delivery of sperm

 Consists of a system of tubes that produce

and convey sperms from the testes to the
penis
 Male Reproductive System
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 Testis inside scrotum has seminiferous

tubules connected to the epididymis which
is connected to the vas deferens which is
connected to the seminal vesicle which is
connected to the urethra which runs
through the penis.
 Male Reproductive System
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containing
seminiferous tubules

from http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookREPROD.html
 Male Reproductive system
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Testis
 Sperm-producing organ of the body.

Gross structure
 Ovoid shaped, tubular gland

 Situated outside the abdominal cavity in the

scrotum.
 The scrotum maintains the testes at a 30C
below body temperature.
 Male Reproductive system
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Testes Internal structure

 Testes contain
numerous coiled
Seminiferous tubules,
Epididymis and Vas
deferens.
 Male Reproductive system
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Functions
 Seminiferous tubules produces
sperm
 Epididymis receives immature
sperm from seminiferous tubule,
stores and matures the sperm.
 Vas deferens receives mature
sperm which it conveys to the
urethra within the penis.
 Male reproductive system
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 In urethra sperm mixed with secretions

from seminal vesicle (alkaline), prostate
gland (alkaline) and Cowper’s gland
(clear, lubricating mucous).
Sperm + secretions = semen.
 Male reproductive system
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 Urethra transports semen to the exterior

via the penis.

 Penis consists of spongy, erectile tissue

and is responsible for deposition of sperm
into the vagina.
 Gametogenesis
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 Gamete formation
Occurs in ovary; produces eggs
(oogenesis).
Occurs in testes; produces sperm
(spermatogenesis)
 Gametogenesis
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Process of Spermatogenesis
 Original cells are diploid primordial
germ cells in the wall of the seminiferous
tubules
 Germ cells repeatedly divide by mitosis
to form spermatogonia (singular
spermatogonium)
 Spermatogenesis
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 Each spermatogonia then grows into a

primary spermatocyte
 Primary spermatocyte divides by meiosis.

 Firstmeiotic division results in two secondary

spermatocytes.
 Second division (meiosis II) results in a group of
four spermatids.
18
from http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html
 Spermatogenesis
Transverse Section through Testis
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Seminiferous
tubule

http://nongae.gsnu.ac.kr/~cspark/teaching/chap3.html
 Spermatogenesis
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 Each spermatid differentiates into a

spermatozoon.
The sperm are enveloped by large
Sertoli cells which nourish them.
The cells are now adjacent to the lumen
so that the tails project into the lumen.
 Spermatogenesis
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 Mature sperm eventually

detach and are released
into the lumen.

 The mature sperm is

divided into: head, neck,
middle piece, tail and end
piece.
 Sperm Structure
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 Head - with large nucleus (haploid) that

nearly fills it
Nucleus has a thin membrane-enclosed
cap called acrosome.
Acrosome contains hydrolytic enzymes
and is important in fertilization.
 Sperm Structure
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 Neck, middle piece and tail concerned

with propulsion.

An axial filament runs down the centre

of neck, middle piece and tail.
 The filament has a 9+2 microtubule structure
typical of cilia and flagella.
 Sperm tails are therefore modified flagella
 Sperm Structure
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Middle piece has densely packed

mitochondria that releases energy for
movement of the sperm.
25 Female Reproductive System
 Female Reproductive System
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 Organs specialized to produce eggs/ova

and provide a site for the development of
the embryo if an ovum is fertilized.

 Consists of a series of tubes through which

the male gametes are conveyed to the
upper end of the fallopian tubes
(oviducts) where fertilization takes place
 Female Reproductive System
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 Ovary connected to
fallopian tube (oviduct)
connected to uterus
connected to cervix
connected to vagina

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovary
 Female Reproductive System
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-produces egg

Fallopian tube/
- site of
fertilization + - nourish egg
conveys egg - extend to keep
from ovary to developing
uterus embryo

-muscle
separate uterus
from vagina

-receives sperm

http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookREPROD.html
 Ovaries
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Function
 Produces the female gametes and secretes
hormones.

Gross structure
 Compact masses of cells 2-3 cm long,
situated within the abdominal cavity.
 Ovaries
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Cross section
 Consists of an outer cortex and inner
medulla.
 Medulla has blood vessels

 Cortical cells (outer layer) is the

germinal epithelium where gamete
formation starts.
 Oogenesis
Longitudinal Section through Ovary
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www.wisc.edu/.../ ovary%20diagram.jpg
 Oviduct
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 Fallopian tube (oviduct)

Muscular tube approximately 12cm long;
The lumen is lined with ciliated epithelium
Peristaltic movements and cilia aid the
movement of the ova.
Conveys female gametes (ova plural,
ovum singular) from the ovary to the
uterus.
 Uterus
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Uterus - thick-walled hollow, pear-shaped

organ
 Approximately 7cm long and 5cm wide.
 Has three layers: outer serosa, the middle
myometrium and the inner endometrium.
 Cavity has ability to extend greatly
(pregnancy).
 Has the cervix at the lower entrance;
 Cervix & Vagina
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Cervix - powerful sphincter muscle

separates uterus from vagina.

Vagina - muscular tube approx. 9cm

long
leadsfrom cervix to exterior
accommodates sperm deposits.
 Oogenesis
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 Production of eggs begin before birth

during foetal development.

 Primordial germ cell (in the germinal

epithelium) divide by mitosis during
development of female foetus to form
many oogonia.
 Oogonia grow into a primary oocyte
 Oogenesis
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 Oocyte becomes enclosed by the

granulosa layer of cells (follicle cells), and
form a primordial follicle

 During the menstrual cycle, one

primordial follicle per month develops
into a mature follicle within which is the
developing egg.
 Ovary T.S.
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from http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/histology/labmanual2002/labsection3/FemaleRepTract03.htm
 Oogenesis
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 The primary oocyte undergoes meiosis,

resulting in two unequally sized cells –
a large secondary oocyte, and a
smaller first polar body.

 If no fertilization occurs the secondary

oocyte is lost.
 Oogenesis
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 If the secondary oocyte encounters a

sperm and fertilization occurs, the
second meiotic division proceeds.

 Results of this division is a functional egg

or ovum which is haploid, and another
polar body.
 Oogenesis

First polar body may

also undergo meiosis II
producing a total of three
polar bodies; these
degenerate as they
function only to receive
the other half of the
chromosomes.

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from http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Sexual_Reproduction.html
 The egg cell
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 Does not propel itself

 Is larger than male gamete; largest cell in
the body; diameter approx. 140 μm; just
visible with the naked eye.
 Has a large haploid nucleus surrounded
by a dense cytoplasm containing the usual
cell organelles.
 The egg cell
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 Has cytoplasm with lipid and glycogen

food reserves and small amount of yolk.
 nutrients are also obtained from surrounding
follicle cells.

 Has a zona pellucida;

 jelly-like
coat just inside the follicle cells;
 secreted by the follicle cells;
 surrounds the egg.
 The Mature Graafian follicle
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 Starting with the primordial follicle

Granulosa cells multiply and form many
layers of cells around the oocyte.
 The Mature Graafian follicle
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 Which develops into a primary follicle.

An antrum (fluid-filled space) develops
in the follicle; fluid secreted by
granulosa cells.
The medulla cells also form the theca
(further cell layers around the
granulosa).
Theca externa – fibrous
Theca internaa- vascula
 The Mature Graafian follicle
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 Which is now called a secondary

follicle.
Further development occurs

 Now called a Graafian follicle

 The Mature (Preovulatory) Graafian follicle
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Zona pellucida

Oocyte

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovulation
47 Hormonal Regulation of Reproduction
 Hormonal Regulation
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 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis are controlled

by the hypothalamus (in the brain) and the
pituitary gland.

 Regulation of gametogenesis involves negative

feedback from hormones produced by the
gonads.
 Reproductive hormones
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Male Hormone list Female Hormone list

1. GnRH (Hypothalamus) 1. GnRH (Hypothalamus)
2. FSH (Anterior Pituitary) 2. FSH (Anterior Pituitary)
3. ISCH (Anterior Pituitary) 3. LH (Anterior Pituitary)
4. Testosterone (Testes- 4. Oestrogen (Ovary-
Leydig Cells) Granulosa Cells)
5. Progesterone (Ovary-
Corpus luteum)
 Hormonal Control of Reproduction
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"Hypothalamus": The regulator gland; controls the pituitary

gland.
Located in the brain under the front portion of your cerebral
cortex (the thinking center), behind the nasal cavities.
It regulates body temperature; controls thirst and appetite;
influences blood pressure, sexual behavior, memory, aggression,
fear response, and sleep; helps to regulate our other emotions.

“Pituitary”: The master gland-- controls many of the other glands

and processes.
It is located just below the hypothalamus.
It controls so many of the other endocrine (ductless glands)
organs. Also stores other hormones made in the hypothalamus.
 Hypothalamus in gametogenesis
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Hypothalamus
 Secrete GnRH (gonadotrophin

releasing hormone) to control pituitary.

GnRH is transported to anterior lobe of
pituitary.
 Pituitary in gametogenesis
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Pituitary (Anterior)
 In response to GnRH secretes 2
glycoprotein gonadotrophic hormones:
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH) / Interstitial cell
stimulating hormone (ICSH).

 ICSH and FSH from anterior pituitary control

growth, development and maintenance of
testes
 Spermatogenesis - Hormonal Control
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FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone)

 Stimulates Sertoli cells, increasing their activity
so the development of spermatozoa from
spermatids can be completed.

ICSH (Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone)

 Stimulates Leydig (Interstitial) cells of testis to
produce testosterone (steroid hormone).
 Spermatogenesis - Hormonal Control
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Testosterone
Stimulates growth and development of
the germinal epithelium cells
(spermatogonia) to produce sperms.
Controls the development of secondary
sexual characteristics.
 Spermatogenesis - Hormonal Control
Regulation by negative feedback
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 If the rate of spermatogenesis is too

rapid
Sertolicells release inhibin (a
glycoprotein hormone) which targets the
anterior pituitary.
FSH production is then decreased and
rate of spermatogenesis therefore
reduced.
 Spermatogenesis - Hormonal Control
Regulation by negative feedback
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 An increase in the level of testosterone

Inhibits the hypothalamus which
Leads to decrease in level of GnRH
secreted
In turn leads to a decline in ICSH and
FSH.
 Spermatogenesis - Hormonal Control
Regulation by negative feedback
Hypothalamus

GnRH

Anterior pituitary gland

negative
feedback
Inhibin FSH ICSH
(negative
feedback)

Sertoli cells TESTIS Interstitial cells

Testosterone

57
Sperm
 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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 Hormones in females are secreted in

cycles.

 Normally one egg is produced per cycle.

 Human cycles lasts about 28 days

 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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 Cycle begins the 1st day of menstruation

(the shedding of the endometrium).

 Two important two events to watch in the

menstrual cycle: those occurring in the
ovary and those in the uterus.
 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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Events in Ovary
 GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates
the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH into
the blood.
 FSH stimulates the development and
maturation of one follicle in the ovary
(Follicular phase).
 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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Events in Ovary contd.

 The wall of the follicle (granulosa cells)
secretes oestrogen (steroid hormone),
increasing in amounts as the follicle grows.
 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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Events in Uterus
 Oestrogen targets the uterine wall –
causing it to repair and thicken (the
endometrium) in preparation for the
possible implantation of an embryo.
 As oestrogen increases, it stimulates the

anterior pituitary to produce LH.

 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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Events in Uterus
 At about 14 days into the cycle, a surge in
LH (and oestrogen) brings about
ovulation (release of the secondary
oocyte from the Graafian follicle into the
oviduct) (Ovulatory phase).
 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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Events in Uterus, contd.

 After ovulation oestrogen inhibits the

anterior lobe of the pituitary gland so
that FSH is inhibited. This prevents any
more follicles developing.
 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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 The remaining part of the Graafian

follicle under influence of LH develops
into corpus luteum (Luteal phase).

 Corpus luteum secretes progesterone.

 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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 Progesterone (with oestrogen) continues to

keep uterine wall ready for implantation
of an embryo.

 Progesterone inhibits FSH and LH

production to prevent more follicle
development and ovulation.
 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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 If fertilization does not occur, the

corpus luteum degenerates to corpus
albicans (about 28 days into cycle)
and progesterone levels drop.
 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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 Decrease progesterone (and

oestrogen) levels causes the
endometrium of uterus to breakdown
and be passed out through the
vagina. (Menstruation).

 Menstruation lasts about five days

 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
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Phases: Menses| Follicular | Luteal | Menses

 Oogenesis - Hormonal control
Hypothalamus
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GnRH

see Understanding Biology, Toole & Toole (3rd edition). Page 231
71 Fertilization
 Fertilization
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 Sperms are generally released inside the

female tract during copulation.

 Once inside vagina, sperm propel

themselves by the tail; assisted by
contractions of the uterus and oviduct
(fallopian tube).
 Fertilization
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 The thick mucus which normally block the

cervix becomes thinner in first part of the
menstrual cycle.

 It takes 4-8 hours for sperm to reach the

oviducts.
 Fertilization
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 When the head of the sperm reaches the

oocyte, the cell surface membrane next to
the acrosome and the membrane of the
acrosome rupture.

 Hydrolytic enzymes are released. This is

called the acrosome reaction.
 Fertilization
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Follicle cells
 Fertilization
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 Hydrolytic enzymes soften the follicle cells

allowing the sperm to pass through.
 The zona pellucida has special receptors
to which the sperm head binds.
 Digestive enzymes make a path through
the zona pellucida to the surface of the
oocyte.
 Fertilization
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 After the sperm has penetrated, the zona

pellucida thickens to form a ‘fertilisation
membrane’ which prevents the entry of
further sperm.
 The second meiotic division of the egg

now completes
 Then fusion of the two (pro)nuclei (of egg
and sperm) occurs (fertilization).
 Fertilization
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 Fertilization usually occurs about a third

of the way along the oviduct.
 Successful fertilization leads to
conception.
 The zygote now travels to the uterus
where it becomes implanted .
 On its way it divides by mitosis to form a
ball of cells called a blastocyst.
79 Placenta
 The placenta
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 The outer layer of the blastocyst

(trophoblast) develops into the
inner amnion and the
outer chorion which has chorionic
villi.
 Placenta
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Chorionic villi
Finger-like projections which invade the
surrounding uterine tissue and absorb
nutrients.
Project into blood-filled spaces formed
from the mother’s blood vessels.
 Placenta
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Chorionic villi
Hydrolytic enzymes from the
trophoblast cause the arterial and
venous blood vessels in the endometrium
to break down and blood fills the
spaces.
 The placenta
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Chorionic villi

 Inside the villi, networks of blood vessels

develop from the foetus.

 Deoxygenated blood from the foetus is

pumped through two umbilical arteries
into the villi.
 The placenta
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Chorionic villi

 Substances diffuse from the blood spaces

through the villi and into the capillaries
and return to the foetus in the umbilical
vein.
 NB. Foetal and maternal blood do not
mix directly. These are a part of the
placenta which is connected to the foetus
by the umbilical cord.
 The placenta

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 The placenta
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 Functions
1. facilitate exchange of products
between mother and foetus,
2. produce hormones
3. act as a protective barrier
 Functions of placenta
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1. Products exchanged between mother &

foetus

a. Water – by osmosis.
b. Respiratory gases – O2 by diffusion.
Foetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for O2
than adult haemoglobin.
CO2 diffuses opposite to O2.
 Functions of placenta
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1. Products exchanged between mother &

fetus

c. Nutrients – e.g., glucose, amino acids,

fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins. They
utilize diffusion, facilitated diffusion and
active transport,.
 Functions of placenta
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Products exchanged between mother & foetus

d. Excretory products – Nitrogenous waste
such as urea diffuses into the mother’s
blood and is removed by her kidneys.
e. Antibodies – cross from mother to
foetus. Temporary protection is gained.
This is called passive immunity.
 Functions of placenta
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2. Hormone production
a. Placenta secretes chorionic
gonadotrophin (CG) which maintains the
corpus luteum (ensuring it produces
progesterone to keep the uterus
endometrium thick) for three months.
 Functions of placenta
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2. Hormone production
b. After the corpus luteum declines the
placenta also takes over secretion of
oestrogen & progesterone.

c. Human placental lactogen (HPL)

stimulates growth and development of
the breasts.
 The placenta
92

3. Protection of foetus
 Pathogens are barred

Does not protect against

 Small viruses; e.g., HIV.

 Other harmful substances that can affect

the development of the foetus.

 The placenta
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Placenta does not protect against

Toxins
Drugs e.g. alcohol, crack/cocaine,
heroin,
Nicotine from cigarette smoking
Rhesus antibodies
 The placenta
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Rhesus antigen
May be found on cell surface membrane
of red blood cells (RBC).
If present the person is Rhesus positive
(Rh+); If absent the person is Rhesus
negative (Rh-).
 If a mother is Rh- and the baby Rh+
foetal RBC may get into the maternal
circulation.
 The placenta
95

Rhesus antigen contd.

 Mother’s body will recognize the Rh+ cells as
‘foreign’ and make antibodies against them.
 During a subsequent pregnancy with a Rh+ baby,
the mother’s immune system will vigorously make
antibodies against the Rh+ antigen
 Mothers Rh+ antibodies will cross the placenta
and attack the foetus’ Rh+ red blood cells leading
to anaemia, heamolytic disease of the newborn or
stillbirth.