ELEMENTS

Properties:
Melting point 180.50°C, 356.90°F, 453.65 K
Boiling point 1342°C, 2448°F, 1615 K
Density (g cm−3) 0.534
Relative atomic mass 6.94
Source:
- Found combined in small amounts in nearly all
igneous rocks and in the waters of many mineral
springs.
History:
- Discovered on the Swedish island of Utö by the
Brazilian, Jozé Bonifácio de Andralda e Silva in the
1790s.
- Lithium was discovered from a mineral, while other
common alkali metals were discovered from plant
material. This is thought to explain the origin of the
element’s name; from ‘lithos’ (Greek for ‘stone’)
Present Application:
- Present, as Li+, in some natural waters, especially
‘spa’ waters (thermal baths) and in some commercial
bottled mineral drinking water. In medicine, lithium
salts are widely used for treatment of bipolar disorders
(BDs).
Cesium
Properties:
 Melting point 28.5°C, 83.3°F, 301.7 K
 Boiling point 671°C, 1240°F, 944 K
 Density (g cm−3) 1.873
Source:
- Found in the minerals pollucite and lepidolite. Pollucite is found in great quantities at
Bernic Lake,Manitoba, Canada and in the USA.
History:
- Discovered by Carl Plattner in 1846 when he investigated the mineral pollucite (caesium
aluminium silicate)
Present Application:
- Treatment for prostate cancer
Barium
Properties:
 Melting point 727°C, 1341°F, 1000 K
 Boiling point 1845°C, 3353°F, 2118 K
 Density (g cm−3) 3.62
Source:
- Occurs only in combination with other elements
History:
- In early 1600s, Vincenzo Casciarolo, of Bologna, Italy, found some unusual pebbles. If they were
heated to redness during the day, they would shine during the night. This was the mineral barite
(barium sulfate, BaSO4)
Present Application:
- Administered as a radiopaque contrast agent for X-ray imaging of the gastrointestinal tract, providing
radiographs of the oesophagus, stomach and duodenum.
Zirconium
Properties:
 Melting point 1854°C, 3369°F, 2127 K
 Boiling point 4406°C, 7963°F, 4679 K
 Density (g cm−3) 6.52
Source:
- Zirconium occurs in about 30 mineral species, the major ones being zircon and baddeleyite.
History:
- In 1789, the German chemist, Martin Klaproth analysed a zircon and separated zirconium in the
form of its ‘earth’ zirconia, which is the oxide ZrO2.
Present Application:
- Used in in dental implants, total knee and hip replacements and middle-ear ossicular chain
reconstruction surgery.
Tantalum
Properties:
 Melting point 3017°C, 5463°F, 3290 K
 Boiling point 5455°C, 9851°F, 5728 K
 Density (g cm−3) 16.4
Source:
- It occurs mainly in the mineral columbite-tantalite
History:
- Tantalum was reported as a new metal in 1802 by Anders Gustav Ekeberg at Uppsala University,
Sweden.
Present Application:
- Commonly used in implants and bone repair
Helium
Properties:
 Melting point Unknown
 Boiling point −268.928°C, −452.07°F, 4.222 K
 Density (g cm−3) 0.000164
Source:
- The second most abundant element in the universe. It is present in all stars
History:
- In 1868, Pierre J. C. Janssen travelled to India to measure the solar spectrum during a total eclipse
and observed a new yellow line which indicated a new element. Joseph Norman Lockyer recorded the
same line by observing the sun through London smog and, assuming the new element to be a metal,
he named it helium
Present Application:
- Considered for adjunct therapy for respiratory ailments such as asthma, croup and bronchiolitis.
Xenon
Properties:
 Melting point −111.75°C, −169.15°F, 161.4 K
 Boiling point −108.099°C, −162.578°F, 165.051 K
 Density (g cm−3) 0.005366

Source:
- Present in the atmosphere, it is obtained commercially by extraction from liquid air.
History:
- Xenon was discovered in July 1898 by William Ramsay and Morris Travers at University College
London.
Present Application:
- Used as a general anaesthetic.
Flourine
Properties:
 Melting point −219.67°C, −363.41°F, 53.48 K
 Boiling point −188.11°C, −306.6°F, 85.04 K
 Density (g cm−3) 0.001553
Source:
- The 13th most common element in the Earth’s crust.
History:
- The early chemists were aware that metal fluorides contained an unidentified element
similar to chlorine, but they could not isolate it. (The French scientist, André Ampère coined
the name fluorine in 1812.)
Present Application:
- Fluoride is an essential ion for animals, strengthening teeth and bones. It is added to
drinking water in some areas. Fluoride is also added to toothpaste.
Radum
Properties:
 Melting point 696°C, 1285°F, 969 K
 Boiling point 1500°C, 2732°F, 1773 K
 Density (g cm−3) 5
Source:
- Present in all uranium ores, and could be extracted as a by-product of uranium refining
History:
- Radium was discovered in 1898 by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie.
Present Application:
- Used to treat prostate cancer that has spread to the bones
Radon
Properties:
 Melting point −71°C, −96°F, 202 K
 Boiling point −61.7°C, −79.1°F, 211.5 K
 Density (g cm−3) 0.009074
Source:
- Produced naturally from the decay of the isotope radium-226, which is found in rocks
History:
- In 1908, William Ramsay and Robert Whytlaw-Gray at University College, London, collected
enough radon to determine its properties and reported that it was the heaviest gas known.
Present Application:
- Used in some hospitals to treat tumours by sealing the gas in minute tubes, and implanting
these into the tumour, treating the disease in situ.
Antimony
Properties:
 Melting point 630.628°C, 1167.13°F, 903.778 K
 Boiling point 1587°C, 2889°F, 1860 K
 Density (g cm−3) 6.68
Source:
- China produces 88% of the world’s antimony. Other producers are Bolivia, Russia and
Tajikistan.
History:
- Antimony and its compounds were known to the ancients and there is a 5,000-year old
antimony vase in the Louvre in Paris.
Present Application:
- Used for the treatment of two parasitic diseases (leishmaniasis and schistosomiasis).
Lead
Properties:
 Melting point 327.462°C, 621.432°F, 600.612 K
 Boiling point 1749°C, 3180°F, 2022 K
 Density (g cm−3) 11.3
Source:
- Chiefly obtained from the mineral galena by a roasting process
History:
- Lead has been mined for more than 6,000 years, and the metal and its compounds have
been used throughout history.
Present Application:
- Use of lead as a form of radiation protection to shield people or objects from radiation
so as to reduce the effective dose
Lutetium
Properties:
 Melting point 1663°C, 3025°F, 1936 K
 Boiling point 3402°C, 6156°F, 3675 K
 Density (g cm−3) 9.84
Source:
- main source of lutetium is the mineral monazite.
History:
- the honour of discovering lutetium went to Georges Urbain at the Sorbonne in Paris,
because he was the first to report it.
Present Application:
- used in cancer therapy and because of its long half-life,
Carbon
Properties:
 Melting point Sublimes at 3825°C, 6917°F, 4098 K
 Boiling point Sublimes at 3825°C, 6917°F, 4098 K
 Density (g cm−3) 3.513 (diamond); 2.2 (graphite)
Source:
- found in the sun and other stars, formed from the debris of a previous supernova. It is built up
by nuclear fusion in bigger stars.
History:
- Naturalist Giuseppe Averani and medic Cipriano Targioni of Florence were the first to discover
that diamonds could be destroyed by heating. Then, in 1796, the English chemist Smithson
Tennant finally proved that diamond was just a form of carbon by showing that as it burned it
formed only CO2.
Present Application:
- Activated charcoal on the carbon element can be used as a treatment to absorb various toxins
or gases produced in the human body .
Gadolinium
Properties:
 Melting point 1313°C, 2395°F, 1586 K
 Boiling point 3273°C, 5923°F, 3546 K
 Density (g cm−3) 7.90
Source:
- Mainly found in the minerals monazite and bastnaesite.
History:
- Gadolinium was discovered in 1880 by Charles Galissard de Marignac at Geneva.
Present Application:
- Useful in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), particularly in diagnosing cancerous
tumours.
Iodine
Properties:
 Melting point 113.7°C, 236.7°F, 386.9 K
 Boiling point 184.4°C, 363.9°F, 457.6 K
 Density (g cm−3) 4.933
Source:
- Found in seawater, as iodide
History:
- One day in 1811, he added sulfuric acid and saw purple fumes which condensed to form
crystals with a metallic lustre. Courtois guessed this was a new element.
Present Application:
- Iodide salts are used in pharmaceuticals and disinfectants, printing inks and dyes,
catalysts, animal feed supplements and photographic chemicals.
Selenium
Properties:
 Melting point 220.8°C, 429.4°F, 494 K
 Boiling point 685°C, 1265°F, 958 K
 Density (g cm−3) 4.809
Source:
- Obtained from the anode muds produced during the electrolytic refining of copper.
History:
- Discovered by Jöns Jacob Berzelius at Stockholm in 1817.
Present Application:
- Used in some anti-dandruff shampoos
Sodium
Properties:
 Melting point 97.794°C, 208.029°F, 370.944 K
 Boiling point 882.940°C, 1621.292°F, 1156.090 K
 Density (g cm−3) 0.97
Source:
- Sixth most common element on Earth.
History:
- Salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) and soda (sodium carbonate, Na2CO3) had been known since
prehistoric times, the former used as a flavouring and preservative, and the latter for glass
manufacture.
Present Application:
- An important hydrating product in many anti-aging creams. It defends against the free
radicals that accelerate the aging process.
Magnesium
Properties:
 Melting point 650°C, 1202°F, 923 K
 Boiling point 1090°C, 1994°F, 1363 K
 Density (g cm−3) 1.74
Source:
- Eighth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust. It is found in large deposits in
minerals such as magnesite and dolomite.
History:
- The first person to recognise that magnesium was an element was Joseph Black at
Edinburgh in 1755.
Present Application:
- Finds many of its uses in medicine as Epsom salts, milk of magnesia, chloride, and
citrate.
Cobalt
Properties:
 Melting point 1495°C, 2723°F, 1768 K
 Boiling point 2927°C, 5301°F, 3200 K
 Density (g cm−3) 8.86
Source:
- Important ore deposits are found in DR Congo, Canada, Australia, Zambia and Brazil
History:
- The tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamen, who ruled from 1361-1352 BC, contained a small glass
object coloured deep blue with cobalt. Cobalt blue was known even earlier in China and was
used for pottery glazes.
Present Application:
- Widely used in cancer treatment, as a tracer and for radiotherapy.
COMPOUNDS
Potassium antimony tartrate
Properties:
 Chemical formula - K2Sb2(C4H2O6)2 · 3 H2O
 Molar mass - 667.87 g/mol
 Appearance - white crystalline powder
 Density - 2.6 g/cm3
Source:
- Prepared by refluxing a solution of potassium hydrogen tartrate and antimony trioxide for 15 minutes.
The hot mixture is then filtered and antimony potassium tartrate precipitates out as a colourless
crystals.
History:
- The first treatment application against trypanosomiasis was tested in 1906, and the compound's use
to treat other tropical diseases was researched.[8] The treatment of leishmania with antimony
potassium tartrate started in 1913.
Present Application:
- Used to treat cough for reducing the excretion of sputum
Arsenic trioxide
Properties:
 Chemical formula - As2O3
 Molar mass - 197.841 g/mol
 Appearance - White solid
 Density - 3.74 g/cm3
Source:
- Occurs naturally as two minerals, arsenolite (cubic) and claudetite (monoclinic)
History:
- Although arsenic can be poisonous, and chronic arsenic exposure from industrial or natural
sources can cause serious toxicity, arsenic has been used therapeutically for more than 2,400
years.
Present Application:
- Treatment against a certain form of blood cancer, acute promyelocytic leukemia
Hydrogen Peroxide
Properties:
 Chemical formula - H2O2
 Molar mass - 34.0147 g/mol
 Appearance - Very light blue color; colorless in solution
 Odor - slightly sharp
Source:
- Two hydrogen atoms that bond with two oxygen (O) atoms (peroxide), making the formula H2O2
History:
- Alexander von Humboldt synthesized one of the first synthetic peroxides, barium peroxide.
Nineteen years later Louis Jacques Thénard recognized that this compound, which he described as
oxidized water – subsequently known as hydrogen peroxide.
Present Application:
- Used as a germicidal agent and is the only one of its kind that is composed of oxygen and water
Fluorouracil (5-FU)
Properties:
 Formula C4H3FN2O2
 Molar mass 130.077 g/mol
 Melting point 282–283 °C (540–541 °F)
History:
- Charles Heidelberger, who had earlier found that fluorine in fluoroacetic acid inhibited a vital
enzyme, asked Robert Duschinsky and Robert Schnitzer at Hoffman-La Roche to synthesize
fluorouracil.
Present Application:
- Injected to cancer patient’s vein, including stomach cancer, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer,
cervical cancer and others.
Chloroform
Properties:
 Chemical formula CHCl3
 Molar mass 119.37 g·mol−1
 Appearance Colorless liquid
 Odor Heavy, ethereal odor
Source:
- Can be found in nature, but the total of the solvent used by the industries is
synthesized through chemical methods.
History:
- Moldenhawer, a German pharmacist from Frankfurt an der Oder, appears to have
produced chloroform in 1830
Present Application:
- It is used as anesthetic
Calcium Carbonate
Properties:
 Chemical formula CaCO3
 Molar mass 100.0869 g/mol
 Appearance Fine white powder; chalky taste
 Odor odorless
Source:
- Mainly obtained from its various natural mineral sources by mining and processing.
History:
- The vikings used Calcium Carbonate in the 800's BC. Although it had not yet been properly
named and people did not know it could be used at a supplement.
Present Application:
- Non-prescription drug for relief from acid indigestion and heartburn.
Ascorbic acid
Properties:
 Formula C6H8O6
 Molar mass 176.12 g/mol
 Density 1.694 g/cm3
Source:
- Richest natural sources are fruits and vegetables
History:
- Discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928 and synthesized in 1933, making it the first vitamin
to be synthesized.
Present Application:
- Has a definitive role in treating scurvy, which is a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency.
Magnesium sulfate
Properties:
 Chemical formula MgSO4
 Appearance white crystalline solid
 Odor odorless
Source:
- Obtained from the mineral ores.
History:
- In 1618 a farmer by the name of Henry Wicker at Epsom in England attempted to give his cows
water from a well. They refused to drink because bitter taste of the water. However the farmer
noticed that the water seemed to heal scratches and rashes. The fame of Epsom salts spread.
Eventually it was recognized to be magnesium sulphate, MgSO4.
Present Application:
- Used in medicine as an electrolyte replenisher, anticonvulsant and mainly in the pre-eclampsia
treatment to reduce the frequency of contractions in pregnant women.
Barium sulfate
Properties:
 Chemical formula BaSO4
 Molar mass 233.38 g/mol
 Appearance white crystalline
 Odor odorless
 Density 4.49 g/cm3
Source:
- Can be found in some minerals; particularly the mineral barite
History:
- Barium sulfate is reduced to barium sulfide by carbon.
Present Application:
- Used in medicine, as a cockatil in the radio-opaque diagnosis.
Silver Nitrate
Properties:
 Chemical formula AgNO3
 Molar mass 169.87 g·mol−1
 Appearance colorless solid
 Odor Odorless
Source:
- occurs naturally as large mineral deposits (called nitratine) in dry regions
History:
- Albertus Magnus, in the 13th century, documented the ability of nitric acid to separate gold
and silver by dissolving the silver. Magnus noted that the resulting solution of silver nitrate
could blacken skin.
Present Application:
- used for wound management