Introduction of Material

Science & Engineering

Fundamentals of Materials Science & Engineering; An Integrated

approach, Callister, W. D, Jr, 2008, John Wiley & Sons
The sciene and engineering of materials, Donald R. Askeland, Pradeep P
Fulay., Wendelin J. Wright, 2010,
Materials Science and Engineering
• Briefly, materials science is the study of “stuff.”
• Materials science is the study of solid matter, inorganic and organic matter

WHY STUDY MATERIAL?

• To be able to select a material in-service performance and cost
consideration
• To understand their properties & limit of material to deterioration
• To be able to create a new material that have some desirable properties
 Organic, Inorganic & Biological Materials
Organic materials
• C compounds & their derivative, long chain
• Chemically bonded with H, O & other metallic substances through
polymerisation
• Resistance to corrosion, light, easy to fabrication, combustible
• Plastic, rubber, waxe, petroleum etc.
Inorganic materials
• Forms due to natural development
• Metals, clay, minerals, ceramics etc.
Biological materials
• Derived from living creature
• Wood, bone, limestone, leather
Material needs
 • arrangement of internal components
structure • subatomic
• atomic
• microscopic
• macroscopic (bulk)

characterization
processing properties
• material characteristic
• method of
• response to external
preparing material
stimulus
• mechanical, electrical,
performance thermal, magnetic,
• behavior in a optical, deteriorative
particular
application
The Materials Selection Process
1. Pick Application Determine required Properties
Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical, deteriorative.

2. Properties Identify candidate Material(s)

Material: structure, composition.

3. Material Identify required Processing

Processing: changes structure ,overall shape or other by
applying heat, mechanical forces etc.
ex: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping
forming, joining, annealing.

6
 Material properties
 The way the materials respond to the
environment

• Six properties: mechanical, electrical,

thermal, magnetic, optical, and
deteriorative.
• Mechanical properties relate deformation
to an applied load or force; examples
include elastic modulus and strength.
• Electrical properties, such as electrical
conductivity and resistivity, the stimulus is
an electric field.
• Thermal behavior of solids can be
represented in terms of heat capacity and
thermal conductivity.
• Magnetic properties
demonstrate the response of a
material to the application of a
magnetic field.
• Optical properties, the stimulus
is electromagnetic or light
radiation
• Deteriorative characteristics
relate to the chemical
reactivity of materials
Classification of materials

By state By atomic structure

Classification of materials
 According to the way the atoms are bound together:
1) METAL
• composed of metallic elements & nonmetallic
elements (e.g. C, N, O) in relatively small amounts.
• Atoms are arranged in a very orderly manner
2) CERAMIC
• Atoms behave mostly like either +/- & bound between
them
3) POLYMERS
• Are bound by covalent forces & also by weak van der
Waals forces
• Usually organic based on H,C & other non-metallic
elements
 General properties of the materials
Metals
• Strong, ductile
• High thermal & electrical conductivity
• Opaque, reflective
• susceptible to corrosion
• strong, but deformable
Polymers/plastics
• Covalent bonding  sharing of e’s
• Soft, ductile, low strength, low density
• Thermal & electrical insulators
• Optically translucent or transparent Ceramics:
• very large molecules • ionic bonding (refractory) – compounds of
• low density, low weight metallic & non-metallic elements (oxides,
• maybe extremely flexible carbides, nitrides, sulfides)
• Brittle, glassy, elastic
• Non-conducting (insulators)
• resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments
• hard, but brittle
 their interrelationship

•Composite  made of different materials to achieve specific

properties
• consist of more than one material type
• designed to display a (+) combination of properties of each
component
 Classification of Materials – Advanced Materials
 Material used in ‘hi-tech’ application, usually designed for maximum
performance & normally expensive

BIOMATERIALS SEMICONDUCTORS SMART MATERIALS

• implanted in • electrical properties • able to sense &
human body between conductors respond changes in
• compatible and insulators their environments
with body • Sensitive to impurities
tissues • electrical properties
can be precisely
controlled

Intel Pentium 4

hip replacement
 Atomic Structure
• Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed
of protons and neutrons, which is encircled by moving
electrons.
• Both electrons and protons are electrically charged,
the charge magnitude being 1.60 ×10-19 C
• negative in sign for electrons and positive for protons,
neutrons are electrically neutral;
• For an electrically neutral or complete atom, the
atomic number also equals the number of electrons
the atom is electrically neutral.
• Each chemical element is characterized by the number
of protons in the nucleus, or the atomic number
• iron atom has an atomic number of 26  contains 26
electrons and 26 protons
• Most of the mass of the atom is within its nucleus.
• protons and neutrons have approximately the same
mass, 1.67 × 10-27 kg, which is significantly larger
than that of an electron, 9.11 ×10-31 kg
• atomic mass (A or M) may be expressed as the the
average number of the masses of protons and
neutrons within the nucleus
 Electrons in atoms
• “Bohr atomic model”
• assumed electrons to revolve around
the atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals
• describe electrons in atoms in terms
of both position (electron orbitals)
and energy (quantized energy levels)
• An electron may change energy by
jumping either to an allowed higher
energy (with absorption of energy) or
to a lower energy (with emission of
energy).
• Wave mechanical model:
• the smaller the principal quantum
number, the lower the energy level
(energy: a 1s << 2s state <<3s)
• within each shell, the energy of a
subshell level increases with the value
of the l quantum number. (the energy:
3d >> 3p >> 3s)
• there may be overlap in energy of a
state in one shell with states in an
adjacent shell, which is especially true
of d and f states (energy:3d >> 4s)
 Electron configuration
• electron configuration or structure  the manner in which an
atom states are occupied
• indicated by a superscript after the shell–subshell designation
(e.g., the electron configurations
• for hydrogen, 1s1 dan helium 1s2
• electron states: values of energy that are permitted for electrons
• Pauli exclusion principle: electron state can hold no more than
two electrons, which must have opposite spins.
• Thus, s, p, d, and f subshells may each accommodate, respectively,
a total of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons
• the electrons fill up the lowest possible energy states in the
electron shells and subshells, two electrons (having opposite
spins) per state.
• When all the electrons occupy the lowest possible energies in
accord with the foregoing restrictions, an atom is said to be in its
ground state.
 valence
•  the number of electrons that occupy the outermost
shell, usually, in the s and p energy levels.
• The valence of an atom is the number of electrons in
an atom that participate in bonding or chemical
reactions
• atoms have “stable electron configurations” when the
outermost or valence electron shell are completely
filled.
• Normally this corresponds to the occupation of just the
s and p states for the outermost shell by a total of eight
electrons, as in neon, argon, and krypton, exception is
helium (two 1s electrons).
• These elements are the inert & unreactive chemically
• Some atoms of the elements that have unfilled valence
shells assume stable electron configurations by gaining
or losing electrons to form charged ions, or by sharing
electrons with other atoms.
 Electropositive & electronegative
• electropositive elements  they are capable of giving up their few valence
electrons to become positively charged ions
• atom with nearly empty outer levels—such as sodium—readily give up
electrons and have low electronegativity.
• Electronegative  they readily accept electrons to form negatively charged
ions, or sometimes they share electrons with other atoms.
• Atoms are more likely to accept electrons if their outer shells are almost full
• Electronegativity (e greed) the tendency of an atom to gain an electron;
the power of atom to attract electrons to itself
• Atoms with almost completely filled outer energy levels—such as chlorine—
are strongly electronegative and readily accept electrons.
• As a general rule, electronegativity increases in moving from left to right and
from bottom to top.
 Atomic Bonding
• The number of covalent bonds is determined by the number of valence electrons
• the degree of either bond type depends on the relative positions of the
constituent atoms in the periodic table or the difference in their
electronegativities
• The wider the separation (both horizontally and vertically) from the lower left to
the upper-right-hand corner (i.e.,the greater the difference in electronegativity)
 in general the more ionic the bond.
• Conversely, the closer the atoms are together (i.e., the smaller the difference in
electronegativity), the greater the degree of covalency.
• If the electronegativity difference between them (x)is large (indicating 1
element is greedier than other), e attracted to the more electronegative element
ion attract each other
• In general x > 1.7 ionic
• x < 1.7 covalent
IONIC BONDING
• When one atom may donate its valence electrons to a different atom, filling
the outer energy shell of the second atom
• Both atoms now have filled/emptied outer energy levels, but both have
acquired an electrical charge and behave as ions.
• The atom that contributes the electrons is left with a net positive charge and
is called a cation, while the atom that accepts the electrons acquires a net
negative charge and is called an anion.
• The oppositely charged ions are then attracted to one another and produce
the ionic bond.
• Occured by transfer electron;
• form between very active metallic & non metallic elements
• all the atoms acquire stable or inert gas configurations and, in addition, an
electrical charge
• Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence electrons to the
nonmetallic atoms
• to form AX ionic bonding, A loses e easily, X accepts e without too much
energy input
• It follows that for ionic materials to be stable, all positive ions must have
as nearest neighbors negatively charged ions in a three dimensional
scheme, and vice versa
• The predominant bonding in ceramic materials is ionic
• High bonding energy is reflected in high melting temperatures.
COVALENT BONDING
• the sharing of covalent bonding electrons between adjacent atoms.
• Two atoms will each contribute at least one electron to the bond, and the shared electrons may
be considered to belong to both atoms.
• forms when atoms have the same electronegativity  energies of bonding electrons of A & X are
comparable
• If the electron energy of the atoms is different  transfer energy (ionic bonding)
• Each instance of sharing represents one covalent bond
• e.g: C atom, has four valence electrons, whereas each of the four hydrogen atoms has a single
valence electron; obtains eight electrons in its outer energy shell by sharing its electrons with four
surrounding H atoms  each C atom is bonded to 4 neighboring atoms by 4 covalent bonds
• Many nonmetallic elemental molecules (H2, Cl2, F2 etc) as well as molecules containing dissimilar
atoms, such as CH4,H2O, HNO3, and HF, are covalently
 Group assignment
• Ceramics
• Crystalline & amorphous

 Definition, grouping & applications