SENSES

SENSES
 Sensation result only from those stimuli that reach the
cerebral cortex and are consciously perceived. Senses can
be defined as special or general.
General Senses
 Receptors for general senses, such as pain, temperature,
touch, pressure, and proprioception, are scattered
throughout the body.
Special Senses
 Smell and taste respond to chemical stimulation
 vision to light stimulation

 hearing and balance to mechanical stimulation.

 EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM AND RELATED DISEASES

 There is a general decline in sensory and motor

functions with age.
 Mental functions, including memory, may decline with
age, but this varies from person to person.
 Alzheimer’s disease/dementia
 Cerebrovascular accident
 Meningitis, encephalitis
 Tetanus
 Parkinson’s disease
 Cerebral palsy
 Epilepsy
 Headache/cephalalgia
1. Olfaction
 Accessory structures:
 nasal cavity
 superior nasal concha
 cribriform plate
 olfactory bulb
 olfactory tract
 molecules in the air enter the nasal cavity and
become dissolved in the mucous epithelial lining of
the superior nasal concha
 Olfactory neurons have enlarged distal ends with
long cilia. The cilia have receptors that respond to
odors
 The wide range of detectable odors may result from
combinations of receptors responses stimulated by
only a few primary odors will bind with the
receptor sites
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
 Axons of the olfactory neurons from the olfactory
nerves will enter the olfactory bulb Olfactory
tracts carry action potentials to the
thalamus olfactory cortex of the brain temporal
Frontal lobe for interpretation
2. Taste
 Accessory structures
 teeth
 tongue
 palate
 pharynx
 salivary glands
 Taste buds contain taste cell with hairs that
extend into taste pores
 Receptors on the hairs detect dissolved
substances.
 There are five basic types of taste: sour, salty,
bitter, sweet, and umami.
Neuronal Pathways for Taste
 The sensory impulses will travel on the facial nerves
which carry taste from the anterior two-thirds of
tongue the glossopharyngeal from the posterior
one-third of the tongue vagus nerve from the root of
the tongue thalamus gustatory cortex
parietal lobe for interpretation
EYE
3. Vision
Accessory Structures
 sclera
 cornea – transparent part that permits light to
enter eye
 choroid body – contains blood vessels and
pigment cells; absorbs light so that it will not
reflect on the eye
 ciliary body – smooth muscle that hold the lens
 iris – colored part of the eye that surrounds the
pupil, regulate light through the diameter of the
pupil
 anterior chamber with aqueous humor
 pupil - dilates or constrict
 lens – regulated light from the pupil enter for
interpretation
 posterior chamber with vitreous humor –
refract light and holds ball in place. Also provides
nutrients to the inner surface of the eye
 The retina (nervous tunic) is the inner layer of
the eye and contains neurons sensitive to light.
 The eyebrows prevent perspiration from entering
the eyes.
 The eyelids protect the eyes from foreign objects.
 The conjunctiva covers the inner eyelids and the
anterior surface of the eye.
 Lacrimal glands produce tears that flow across
the surface of the eye. Tears lubricate and protect
the eye. Excess tears pass through the
nasolacrimal duct into the nasal cavity.
FUNCTIONS OF THE COMPLETE EYE

 Light passing through a concave surface diverges.

Light passing through a convex surface converges.
 Converging light rays cross at the focal point and are
said to be focused.
 The cornea, aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous humor
all refract light. The cornea is responsible for most of
the convergence, whereas the lens can adjust the focus
by changing shape (accommodation).
Neuronal Pathways for Vision
Axons pass through the optic nerves to the optic
chiasm Axons from the retina cross and those
from the temporal retina do not Optic
tracts thalamus visual cortex in the
occipital lobe
4. HEARING AND BALANCE
The ear and Its Functions
 The external ear consist of the auricle and the
acoustic meatus.
 The middle ear connects the external and inner ear.
 Ear canal is lined with hair and modified sebaceous
gland called ceruminous that produces earwax or
cerumen that protects ear from foreign objects
 The tympanic membrane (eardrum) is stretched
across the external auditory meatus.
 The malleus, incus, and stapes connect the tympanic
membrane to the oval window of the inner ear.
 The auditory, or eustechian, tube connects to the
middle ear to the pharynx and equalizes pressure.
The middle ear is also connected to the mastoid air
cells.
 The inner era has three parts: the semicircular
canals, the vestibule, and the cochlea.
EAR
HEARING
 The cochlea is a canal shaped like a snails shell.
 The cochlea is divided into three compartments by
the vestibular and basilar membranes.
 The spiral organ consists of hair cells that attach to
the basilar and tectorial membranes.
 Sound waves are funneled by the auricle down the
external acoustic meatus, causing the tympanic
membrane to vibrate.
 The tympanic membrane vibration are passed along
the ossicle to the oval window of the inner ear.
 Movement of the stapes in the oval window causes
the perilymp to move the basilar membrane, which
causes the endolymph to move the basilar membrane
causes movement of the hair cells in the spiral organ
and generation of action potentials which travel
along the vestibucochlear nerve.
Neuronal Pathways for Hearing
 Action potentials travel along the cochlear
portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve to the
cochlear nucleus cerebral cortex in the
temporal lobe
 EQUILIBRIUM

 Static equilibrium evaluates the position of the head

relative to gravity.
 Maculae, located in the vestibule, consist of hair cells
with the microvilli embedded in a gelatinous mass moves
in response to gravity.
 Kinetic equilibrium evaluates movements of the head.
 There are three semicircular canal in the inner era,
arranged perpendicular to each other. The ampulla of
each semicircular canal contains a crista ampullaris,
which has hair cells with microvilli embedded in a
gelatinous mass, the cupula.
Neuronal Pathways for Equilibrium
 Axons the vestibular portion of the vestibulocochlear
nerves project to the vestibular nucleus and onto the
cerebral cortex.
EFFECT OF AGING ON THE SPECIAL
SENSES AND RELATED DISEASES

 There is general decline in taste, vision,

hearing, and balance in elderly people.
 Otitis media

 Motion sickness

 Conjunctivitis

 Cataract, glaucoma

 Color blindness

 Strabismus

 Myopia, hyperopia,presbyopia