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KNNL – Chapter 12
Issues in Autocorrelated Data
• When error terms are correlated (not independent),
problems occur when using ordinary least squares
(OLS) estimates
– Regression Coefficients are Unbiased, but not Minimum
Variance
– MSE underestimates s2
– Standard errors of regression coefficients based on OLS
underestimate the true standard error
– Inflated t and F statistics and artificially narrow
confidence intervals
1 1 2
s 2
Covariance: s 2 , 1 s 1 u2 , 1 s 2 s u2 , 1 s 2 0
2 2
1 2
s 2
s 2 , 1 1 2
Corrrelation: 2 , 1
s 2 s 1 s 2
s 2
1 2 1 2
First-Order Model - II
In General:
t t 1 ut t 2 ut 1 ut t 2 ut 1 ut ... s ut s
2
s 0
s 2s 2
s2
E t 0 s t s ut s s ut s s
2 2 2 2s
s 0 s 0 s 0 1 2
ss 2
Covariance: s t , t s s0
1 2
Correlation: t , t s s s0
1 2 n 1
1 n2
s 2
σ 2 ε 2
2 1 n 3
1
n 1 n 2 n 3
1
et et 1
2
Test Statistic: DW t 2
n
e
t 1
2
t
s 2
E t 0 E t t 1
1 2
n n n n
s 2 n
e e e e 2 et et 1 2 e 2n
2 2 2 2
t 1 t 1
1 2
t t t
t 2 t 2 t 2 t 2 t 1
Under H 0 , expect DW 2
Autocorrelation - Remedial Measures
• Determine whether a missing predictor variable can
explain the autocorrelation in the errors
• Include a linear (trend) term if the residuals show a
consistent increasing or decreasing pattern
• Include seasonal dummy variables if data are quarterly
or monthly and residuals show cyclic behavior
• Use transformed Variables that remove the (estimated)
autocorrelation parameter (Cochrane-Orcutt and
Hildreth-Lu Procedures)
• Use First Differences
• Estimated Generalized Least Squares
Transformed Variables
Suppose is known: Yt 0 1 X t t t t 1 ut
Let Yt ' Yt Yt 1 0 1 X t t 0 1 X t 1 t 1
0 1 1 X t X t 1 t t 1 0 1 1 X t X t 1 ut
Yt ' 0' 1' X t' ut (Standard Simple linear regression with independent errors)
where:
Yt ' Yt Yt 1 X t' X t X t 1 0' 0 1 1' 1
e e
t 1 t
r t 2
n
e
t 2
2
t 1
Hildreth-Lu and First Difference Methods
• Hildreth-Lu Method
– Find value of r (between 0 and 1) that minimizes the SSE for
the transformed model by grid search
– Apply the transformed analysis based on the estimated r
b0 Y b X '
1 b1 b 1
'
Forecasting with Autocorrelated Errors
Makes use of any of the 3 estimation techniques (C-O, H-L, First Differences):
Yt 0 1 X t t t t 1 ut
Yt 0 1 X t t 1 ut Yn 1 0 1 X n 1 n un 1
3 Elements:
^
1. Expected Value: 0 1 X n 1 Estimated as Y n 1 b0 b1 X n 1
2. Multiple of period n Error Term: n Estimated as ren
3. Current disturbance un 1 ~ N 0, s 2
n 1
X i' X '
2
i 2
Approximate 95% PI: Fn 1 t 1 2 ; n 3 s pred (First Differences has n - 2 df)