Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Access method
Hashing
Pointers
INDEX DATA File
File
Access: Data
Index Methods Organization
SEQUENTIAL SEQUENTIAL
ISAM RANDOM
IT Auditing & Assurance, 2e, Hall & Singleton
RANDOM
FILE PROCESSING
OPERATIONS
1. Retrieve a record by key
2. Insert a record
3. Update a record
Individual
4. Read a file Records
5. Find next record
6. Scan a file
7. Delete a record Table 8-1
IT Auditing & Assurance, 2e, Hall & Singleton
DATA STRUCTURES
Flat file structures
Sequential structure [Figure 8-1]
All records in contiguous storage spaces in
specified sequence (key field)
Sequential files are simple & easy to process
Application reads from beginning in sequence
If only small portion of file being processed,
inefficient method
Does not permit accessing a record directly
Efficient: 4, 5 – sometimes 3
Inefficient: 1, 2, 6, 7 – usually 3
IT Auditing & Assurance, 2e, Hall & Singleton
DATA STRUCTURES
Legacy systems
Legacy systems
Inefficient
CUSTOMERS
INVOICES
INVENTORY
IT Auditing & Assurance, 2e, Hall & Singleton
DATABASE STRUCTURES
Relational structure
User views
Data a particular user needs to achieve his/her
assigned tasks
A single view, or view without user input, leads to
problems in meeting the diverse needs of the
enterprise
Trend today: capture data in sufficient detail and
diversity to sustain multiple user views
User views MUST be consolidated into a single
“logical view” or schema
Data in the logical view MUST be normalized
IT Auditing & Assurance, 2e, Hall & Singleton
DATABASE STRUCTURES
Relational structure
Creating views
Designing output reports, documents, and
input screens needed by users or groups
Physical documents help designer
understand relationships among the data
• 3 user views: Table 8-2, Figure 8-12, Table
8-3
Then apply normalization principles to the
conceptual user views to design the database
tables
IT Auditing & Assurance, 2e, Hall & Singleton
DATABASE STRUCTURES
Relational structure
Importance of data normalization
Critical to success of DBMS
Effective design in grouping data
Several levels: 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, etc.
Un-normalized data suffers from:
• Insertion anomalies
• Deletion anomalies
• Update anomalies
One or more of these anomalies will exist
in tables < 3NF
IT Auditing & Assurance, 2e, Hall & Singleton
DATABASE STRUCTURES
Relational structure
Normalization process
Un-normalized data [Table 8-4]
Eliminates the 3 anomalies if:
• All non-key attributes are dependent on the
primary key
• There are no partial dependencies (on part of
the primary key)
• There are no transitive dependencies; non-key
attributes are not dependent on other non-key
attributes
“Split” tables are linked via embedded
“foreign keys”
Normalized database tables examples:
Figures 8-13, 8-14
IT Auditing & Assurance, 2e, Hall & Singleton
DATABASE STRUCTURES
Relational structure
Creating physical tables
Created on paper so far
Then create physical files and populate data
Physical views can be produced from DBMS
Query function
Allows users to create customized lists from database
Users stipulate, using English-like commands, which tables,
records, fields, filtering criteria needed to produce the
desired list
Result is virtual table derived from actual database tables
SQL
• SELECT, FROM, WHERE [Figure 8-16]
• De facto standard query language