CONSTITUENT MATERIALS OF

CONCRETE
CONCRETE
 CONCRETE
• Concrete is a man-made composite the major
constituent of which is natural aggregate, such as
gravel and sand or crushed rock. Alternatively artificial
aggregates, for example, blast furnace slag, expanded
clay, broken brick and steel shoot may be used where
appropriate.

• The other principle constituent of concrete is the

binding medium used to bind the aggregate particles
together to form a hard composite material. The most
commonly used binding medium is the product formed
by a chemical reaction between cement and water.
 CONCRETE
• In its hardened state concrete is a rock-like material with high
compressive strength. By virtue of the ease with which fresh
concrete in its plastic state may be moulded into virtually any shape
it may be used to advantage architecturally or solely for decorative
purposes. Special surface finishes, for example, exposed aggregate,
can also be used to great effect.

• Normal concrete has a comparatively low tensile strength and for

structural applications it is normal practice either to incorporate
steel bars to resist any tensile forces (reinforced concrete) or to
apply compressive forces to the concrete to counteract these
tensile forces (pre-stressed concrete). Concrete is also used in
conjunction with other materials, for example, it may form the
compression flange of a box section the remainder of which is steel
(composite section).
 CONCRETE
• Concrete is used structurally in buildings for foundations,
columns, beams and slabs, in shell structures, bridges,
sewage-treatment works, railway sleepers, roads, cooling
towers, dams, harbours e.t.c. It is used also for a wide
range of precast concrete products which include concrete
blocks, cladding panels, pipes and lamp standards.

• The impact strength, as well as the tensile strength, of

normal concretes is low and this can be improved by the
introduction of randomly orientated fibres into the
concrete mix. Asbestos and glass fibres have all been used
with some success in precast products, for example, pipes,
building panels and roofing sheets.
 CONCRETE
• In addition to its potential from aesthetic considerations,
concrete requires little maintenance and has good fire
resistance. Concrete has other properties which may on
occasions be considered less desirable, for example, the
time-dependent deformations associated with drying
shrinkage and other related phenomena.

• However, if the effects of environmental conditions, creep,

shrinkage and loading on the dimensional changes of
concrete structures and structural elements are fully
appreciated, and catered for at the design stage, no
subsequent difficulties in this respect should arise.
 CONSTITUENT MATERIALS
• Concrete is composed mainly of three materials,
namely, cement, water and aggregate, and an
additional material, known as an admixture, is
sometimes added to modify certain of its
properties. Cement is the chemically active
constituent but its reactivity is only brought into
effect on mixing with water. The aggregate plays
no part in chemical reactions but its usefulness
arises because it is an economical filler material
with good resistance to volume changes which
take place within the concrete after mixing, and it
improves the durability of the concrete.
 CEMENT
• The different cements used for making
concrete are finely ground powders and all
have the important property that when mixed
with water a chemical reaction (hydration)
takes place which, in time, produces a very
hard and strong binding medium for the
aggregate particles. In the early stages of
hydration, while in its plastic stage, cement
mortar gives to fresh concrete its cohesive
properties.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Portland cement is made by mixing
substances containing calcium carbonate,
such as chalk or limestone, with substances
containing silica, alumina and iron oxide, such
as clay or shale, and heating them together to
a clinker which is subsequently ground to
powder.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Manufacture. Cement is prepared by first
intimately grinding and mixing the raw
constituents in certain proportions, burning this
mixture at a very high temperature to produce
clinker, and then grinding it into powder form.
Since the clinker is formed by diffusion between
the solid particles, intimate mixing of the
ingredients is essential if a uniform cement is to
be produced. This mixing may be in a dry or wet
state depending on the hardness of the available
rock.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• The wet process is used, in general, for the softer
materials such as chalk or clay. Water is added to
the proportioned mixture of crushed chalk and
clay to produce a slurry which is eventually led off
to a kiln. This is a steel cylinder, with a refractory
lining, which is slightly inclined to the horizontal
and rotates continuously about its own axis. It is
usually fired by pulverised coal, although gas or
oil may also be used. It may be as large as 3.5m in
diameter and 150m long and handle up to 700t
of cement in a day.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• The slurry is fed in at the upper end of the kiln
and the clinker is discharged at the lower end
where fuel is injected. With its temperature
increasing progressively, the slurry undergoes a
number of changes as it travels down the kiln. At
100oC the water is driven off, at about 850o C
carbon dioxide is given off and at about 1400o C
incipient fusion takes place in the firing zone
where calcium silicates and calcium aluminates
are formed in the resulting clinker. The clinker is
allowed to cool and then ground, with 1 to 5 per
cent gypsum, to the required fineness.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Different types of Portland cement are obtained
by varying the proportions of the raw materials,
the temperature of burning and the fineness of
grinding, and in some cases by intergrinding the
clinker with other recognised materials such as
pulverised-fuel ash, or granulated blastfurnace
slag. Gypsum is added to control the setting of
the cement, which would otherwise set much too
quickly for general use. Certain additives may also
introduced for producing special cements, for
example, calcium chloride is added in the
manufacture of extra-rapid hardening cement.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• The dry or semi-dry process is used for the
harder rocks such as limestone and shale. The
constituent materials are crushed into powder
form and, with a minimum amount of water,
passed into an inclined rotating nodulising pan
where nodules are formed. These are known as
raw meal. This is fed into a kiln and thereafter the
manufacturing process is similar to the wet
process although a much shorter length of kiln is
used. It should be noted that the dry and semi-
dry processes are more energy efficient than the
wet process.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Basic characteristics of Portland cements.

• Differences in the behaviour of the various Portland

cements are determined by their chemical composition and
fineness.

• Chemical composition. The principal chemical compounds

in Portland cement are essentially:
• Tricalcium silicate
• Dicalcium silicate
• Tricalcium aluminate
• Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Of these the most important are the tricalcium
and dicalcium silicates, the relative proportions of
which determine the chief properties of the
cement. The tricalcium silicate hardens more
rapidly than the dicalcium silicate, so that it
generally predominates in rapid-hardening
cement. Conversely, low heat cement contains a
larger proportion of dicalcium silicate. It is
generally believed that cements rich in dicalcium
silicate result in a greater resistance to chemical
attack and a smaller drying shrinkage than do
other Portland cements.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• The hydration of tricalcium aluminate is
extremely exothermic and takes place very
quickly, producing little increase in strength
after about 24 hours. Of the four principle
compounds tricalcium aluminate is the least
stable and cements containing more than 10
per cent are particularly susceptible to
sulphate attack.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• From the foregoing, certain conclusions may be drawn
concerning the nature of various cements. The increased
rate of strength development of rapid-hardening Portland
cement arises from its generally high tricalcium silicate
content and also from its increased fineness which, by
increasing the specific surface of the cement, increases the
rate at which hydration can occur. The low rate of strength
development of low-heat Portland cement is due to its
relatively high dicalcium silicate content and low tricalcium
aluminate and silicate contents. An exceptionally low
tricalcium aluminate content contributes to the increased
resistance to sulphate attack of sulphate-resisting cement.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Fineness. The reaction between the water and cement
starts on the surface of the cement particles and in
consequence the greater the surface area of a given
volume of cement the greater the hydration. It follows
that for a given composition, a fine cement will
develop strength and generate heat more quickly than
a coarse cement. It will, of course, also cost more to
manufacture as the clinker must be more finely
ground. Fine cements, in general, improve the
cohesiveness of fresh concrete and can be effective in
reducing the risk of bleeding, but they increase the
tendency for shrinkage cracking.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Hydration. The chemical combination of cement
and water, known as hydration, produces a very
hard and strong binding medium for the
aggregate particles in concrete and is
accompanied by the liberation of heat, normally
expressed as joules per gram. The rate of
hydration depends on the relative properties of
silicate and aluminate compounds, the cement
fineness and the ambient conditions
(particularly temperature and moisture).
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Setting and hardening. Hydration results in the formation
of a gel around each of the component particles and in
time these layers of gel grow to the extent that they come
into contact with each other. At this stage the cement paste
begins to lose its fluidity. The beginning of a noticeable
stiffening in the cement paste is known as the initial set.
Further stiffening occurs as the volume of gel increases and
the stage at which this is complete and the final hardening
process, responsible for its strength, commences is known
as the final set. The time from the addition of water to the
initial and final set are known as the setting times. The
setting time is affected by cement composition and
fineness, and also, through its influence on the rate of
hydration, by the ambient temperature.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• The setting time of the cement must be sufficient to allow
the concrete to be mixed, deposited and worked into
position. Finely ground cement clinker without any
admixture sets too rapidly for normal use, so a small
proportion of gypsum, which has a retarding action on the
setting process is added during grinding.

• To comply with the requirements of the British Standards,

Portland cements are required to have an initial setting
time of not less than 45 minutes, but for low heat Portland
cement this time is one hour. The final setting time of all
Portland cements is not more than 10 hours.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Strength. The strength of hardened cement is generally
its most important property. The British Standard
Strength requirements for Portland cements, obtained
from mortar or concrete sets carried out in accordance
with BS 4550:Part 3, are summarised in Table 12.7. It
should be understood that cement paste alone is not
used for this test because of the unacceptably large
variations of strength thus obtained. Standard
aggregates are used for making prescribed mortar or
concrete test mixes to eliminate aggregate effects from
the measured strength of the cement.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Soundness. If any excess of lime is used in the
manufacture of cement it may not all combine
with the other minerals and some may remain
free in the finished cement. When the cement
is used in concrete this free lime slakes slowly
and the resulting expansion may cause the
concrete to disintegrate.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Types of cement.

For convenience cements at present in use can be

classified in two categories:
• Varieties of Portland cement
• High alumina cement
• Modified forms of Portland cement are now
made to suite the varying demands of different
kinds of structure.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Ordinary Portland Cement. Ordinary Portland cement
has a medium rate of hardening and is suitable for
most types of work.
• Rapid-Hardening Portland Cement. As the name
implies, this hardens more rapidly than ordinary
Portland cement and is very useful when concrete of
high early strength is required, or when it is necessary
to remove the formwork quickly. It is similar in
chemical composition to ordinary Portland cement but
the proportions of the various compounds may be
slightly different, and it is more finely ground.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• White and Coloured Portland Cements. These are generally used for
decorative work, but red, buff and khaki cements have also been
used for roads and floors.
White cement is made by using china clay in place of ordinary clay
in order to exclude impurities, especially iron oxide. Coloured
cements are made by mixing a pigment with Portland cement.
• Low Heat Portland Cement. Low heat Portland cement evolves heat
more slowly than ordinary Portland cement. It has a slightly
different chemical composition.
• Portland-Blastfurnace Cement. This is made by grinding a mixture
of ordinary Portland cement clinker with selected granulated
blastfurnace slag. The properties of blastfurnace cement are very
similar to those of ordinary Portland cement but it evolves less heat
and is slightly more resistant to chemical attack.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• Sulphate-Resisting Cement. This cement is more resistant
to the deleterious action of sulphates than ordinary
Portland cement.
• Extra-Rapid-Hardening Portland Cement. This is used when
high strengths are required at a very early age or for
concreting in cold, but not freezing weather, when the
quicker evolution of heat resulting from the accelerated
hardening helps to prevent the concrete from being
damaged at low temperatures.
• Masonry Cement. For hand work such as rendering and
brick-laying, mortars composed only of Portland cement
are not ideal. Such mortars harden too quickly, are too
strong, and lack the plasticity and water retention desirable
in a masonry mortar.
 PORTLAND CEMENT
• High-Alumina cement. This cement, which is manufactured by melting a
mixture of limestone or chalk and bauxite (aluminium ore) at about
1450oC and then grinding the cold mass, has different composition and
properties from those of Portland cements. The high proportion of
aluminate, about 40 per cent, brings about an exceptionally high early
strength and consequently it often becomes necessary to keep concrete,
in which this cement is used, continuously wet for at least 24 hours to
avoid damage from the associated heat of hydration.

• If high alumina cement concrete is used in places where moisture and a

high temperature are present simultaneously, there will be a loss of
strength whether these conditions occur early or late in the life of the
concrete.

• High alumina cement concrete is more resistant than ordinary Portland

cement concrete to the action of sulphates.
 AGGREGATES
• Aggregate is much cheaper than cement and
maximum economy is obtained by using as much
aggregate as possible in concrete. Its use also
considerably improves both the volume stability
and the durability of the resulting concrete. The
commonly held view that aggregate is a
completely inert filler in concrete is not true, its
physical characteristics and in some cases its
chemical composition affecting to a varying
degree the properties of concrete in both its
plastic and hardened states.
 AGGREGATES
• In order to make concrete of good quality, it is necessary
for the aggregates to possess certain characteristics. These
are as follows:

• The compressive strength should be at least equal to that

developed by the cement paste which binds the particles of
aggregate together. Most natural aggregates are in fact
much stronger than the normal cement paste.
• The particles should be free from coatings of dust or clay if
the full bond is to be developed.
• All aggregates should be inert in water and should not
contain constituents that are liable to decompose or
change in volume through exposure to the atmosphere.
 AGGREGATES
• Aggregates should be free from organic impurities
which may affect the setting and hardening properties
of the cement.
• Aggregates with a low absorption value must be used
for all concrete that is exposed to the weather or in
contact with liquids. This requirement is particularly
necessary in concrete to be used for liquid-retaining or
for reinforced concrete structures. A porous aggregate
is liable to cause the concrete to spall under the action
of frost. Specially hard aggregates may have to be used
in concrete exposed to severe wear.
 AGGREGATES
• Basic Characteristics of Aggregate

• The criterion of a good aggregate is that it should produce

the desired properties in both the fresh and hardened
concrete. In testing aggregates it is important that a truly
representative sample is used.

• Physical properties.

The properties of the aggregate known to have a significant

effect on concrete behaviour are its strength, deformation,
durability, toughness, hardness, volume change, porosity,
relative density and chemical reactivity.
 AGGREGATES
• Toughness. A commonly used definition for
aggregate toughness is its resistance to failure
by impact and this is normally determined
from the aggregate impact test. The aggregate
impact value (AIV) has a close linear
correlation with the aggregate crushing value
(ACV) and can therefore be employed as the
test for assessing aggregate strength. The AIV
test has advantages over the ACV test of
simplicity and cheapness in operation.
 AGGREGATES
• Hardness. Hardness is the resistance of an aggregate to
wear and is normally determined by an abrasion test.
Toughness and hardness properties of an aggregate are
particularly important for concrete used in road pavements.

• Volume changes. Volume changes due to moisture

movements in aggregates derived from sandstones, and
some basalts may result in considerable shrinkage of the
concrete. If the concrete is restrained this produces internal
tensile stresses, possible tensile cracking and subsequent
deterioration of the concrete. If the coefficient of thermal
expansion of an aggregate differs considerably from that of
the cement paste this too may adversely affect the
concrete performance.
 AGGREGATES
• Porosity. Aggregate porosity is an important property since
it affects the behaviour of both freshly mixed and hardened
concrete through its effect on the strength, water
absorption and permeability of the aggregate. An aggregate
with high porosity will tend to produce a less durable
concrete, particularly when subjected to freezing and
thawing, than an aggregate with low porosity.

• Direct measurement of porosity is difficult and in practice a

related property, namely, water absorption, is measured.
The water absorption is defined as the weight of water
absorbed by a dry aggregate in reaching a saturated
surface-dry state and is expressed as a percentage of the
weight of the dry aggregate.
 AGGREGATES
• Relative density. The relative density of a material is
the ratio of its unit weight to that of water. For the
purposes of mix design the relative density on a
‘saturated and surface-dry’ basis is used. This is given
by A/(A-B) where A is the weight of the saturated
surface-dry sample in air and B the weight of the
saturated sample in water. The relative density of most
natural aggregates falls within the range 2.5 - 3.0. For
artificial aggregates the relative density varies over a
much wider range. Aggregate is the major constituent
of concrete and as such its relative density is an
important factor affecting the density of the resulting
concrete.
 AGGREGATES
• Grading.

• The term ‘grading’ is used to describe the proportion of

the different sizes of particles in an aggregate. The
grading of the aggregate is of importance in so far as it
affects the workability of the concrete-that is, the ease
or difficulty experienced during the process of
compacting. In concrete with the same cement
content, finely graded aggregate will generally require
a higher proportion of water than one which is coarsely
graded, in order to obtain the same degree of
workability.
 AGGREGATES
• The size of the aggregate particles normally used in
concrete varies from 37.5 to 0.15 mm. BS 882 places
aggregates in three main categories: fine aggregate or sand
containing particles the majority of which are smaller than
5.00 mm, coarse aggregate containing particles the
majority of which are larger than 5.00 mm and all-in
aggregate comprising both fine and coarse aggregate.

• The grading of an aggregate can have a considerable effect

on the workability and stability of a concrete mix and is a
most important factor in concrete mix design. A sieve
analysis is used for determining the grading of an aggregate
(BS 812:Part 103).
 AGGREGATES
• Types of Aggregate

• Aggregates may be divided into three classes: normal weight,

lightweight and heavy.

• Heavyweight aggregate. Heavyweight aggregates provide an

effective and economical use of concrete for radiation shielding, by
giving the necessary protection against X-rays, gamma-rays and
neutrons, and for weight coating of submerged pipelines. The
effectiveness of heavyweight concrete, with a density from 4000 to
8500 kg m3, depends on the aggregate type, the dimensions and
degree of compaction. It is frequently difficult with heavyweight
aggregates to obtain a mix which is both workable and not prone to
segregation.
 AGGREGATES
• Normal aggregate. These aggregates are suitable for
most purposes and produce concrete with a density in
the range 2300 to 2500 kg m3. Rock aggregates are
obtained by crushing quarried rock to the required
particle size or by extracting the sand and gravel
deposits formed by alluvial or glacial action. Some
sands and gravels are also obtained by dredging from
sea and river beds. Aggregates, in particular sands and
gravels, should be washed to remove impurities such
as clay and silt. In the case of river and marine
aggregates the chloride content should generally be
less than 1 per cent if these are to be used for
structural concrete.
 AGGREGATES
• Lightweight aggregate. Lightweight aggregates
find application in a wide variety of concrete
products ranging from insulating screeds to
reinforced or prestressed concrete although their
greatest use has been in the manufacture of
precast concrete blocks. Concretes made with
lightweight aggregates have good fire resistance
properties. The lightweight aggregates in
common use are sintered shale, foamed slag,
expanded clay, sintered pulverised fuel ash,
pelletised expanded slag and sintered shale.
 WATER
• The other ingredient for making concrete is water. In most cases it is
specified that the water used shall be fit for drinking. The reason for
this is to ensure that the water does not contain any impurities that
will affect the cement. It does not, however, cover every
requirement, as water containing some substances, such as sugar,
that are harmful to concrete may be quite drinkable.

• River and canal waters frequently contain vegetable and other

organic impurities or chemical matter. Sea water may sometimes be
used when fresh water is not available; the rate of hardening is
likely to be slightly higher than for similar concrete mixed with fresh
water, but there is a danger of efflorescence appearing on the
concrete surface and of reinforcement corroding unless the cover is
adequate and the concrete of high quality.
 ADMIXTURES
• Admixtures are substances introduced into a batch of
concrete, during or immediately before its mixing, in order
to alter or improve the properties of the fresh or hardened
concrete or both.

• In general, the changes brought about in the concrete by

use of admixtures are effected through the influence of the
admixtures on hydration, liberation of heat, formation of
pores and the development of the gel structure. Concrete
admixtures should be only considered for use when the
required modifications cannot be made by varying the
composition and proportion of the basic constituent
materials, or when the admixtures can produce the
required effects more economically.
 ADMIXTURES
• Types of Admixture

• Air-entraining agents. These are probably the most

important group of admixtures. They improve the durability
of concrete, in particular its resistance to the effects of frost
and de-icing salts. The entrainment of air in the form of
uniformly dispersed, very small and stable bubbles of
predominately between 0.25 and 1mm diameter can be
achieved by using foaming agents based on natural resins,
animal or vegetable fats and synthetic detergents which
promote the formation of air bubbles during mixing or by
using gas-producing chemicals such as zinc or aluminium
powder which react with cement to produce gas bubbles.
 ADMIXTURES
• The first method is generally more effective
and is the most widely used. The beneficial
effects of entrained air are produced in two
ways:
• By disrupting the continuity of capillary pores
and thus reducing the permeability of
concrete.
• By reducing the internal stresses caused by
the expansion of water or freezing.
 ADMIXTURES
• Air-entraining agents also improve the workability and
cohesiveness of fresh concrete and tend to reduce bleeding
and segregation; this is particularly useful when aggregates
with poor gradings are used. However, entrained air results
in some reduction in concrete strength. Since
improvements in workability can permit a reduction in the
water content the loss in strength can be minimised.

• The amount of entrained air in concrete is dependent on

the type of admixture and dosage used, as well as on the
cement type, aggregate type and grading, mix proportions,
ambient temperature, type of mixer and mixing time.
 ADMIXTURES
• Accelerating agents. These can be divided into
two groups, namely, setting accelerators and
setting and hardening accelerators. The first of
these are alkaline solutions which can
considerably reduce the setting time and are
particularly suitable for repair work involving
water leakage. Because of their adverse effect on
subsequent strength development these
admixtures should not be used where the final
concrete strength is an important consideration.
 ADMIXTURES
• Setting and hardening accelerators increase
the rate of both setting and early strength
development. The most common admixture
for this purpose is calcium chloride. Since its
use may result in several adverse effects such
as increased drying shrinkage, reduced
resistance to sulphate attack and increased
risk of corrosion of steel reinforcement, it
should only be used with extreme caution and
in accordance with any relevant specifications.
 ADMIXTURES
• Retarders. These are mainly used in hot countries where
high temperatures can reduce the normal setting and
hardening times.

• Other notable applications include situations where large

concrete pours, sliding formwork, or ready-mixed concrete
is used. The extended setting time prevents the formation
of cold joints, allows time for steel-fixing and sometimes for
overnight stopping of the formwork and compensates for
the time lost in transit of ready-mixed concrete. A slightly
reduced water content may be used when using these
retarding agents, with a corresponding increase in final
concrete strength.
 ADMIXTURES
• The effect of retarders is dependent on
dosage, cement type and mix proportions
used, as well as the time of addition and the
ambient temperature. The effectiveness of
retarding water-reducing admixtures is also
influenced by aggregate type and grading.
 ADMIXTURES
• Water reducers or plasticizers. These admixtures are also based on
linosulphonic and hydroxylated-carboxylic acids. Their effect is thought to
be due to an increased dispersion of cement particles causing a reduction
in the viscosity of the concrete. This effect can be used in three ways:

• To increase concrete workability for a given water-cement ratio and

nominal strength;
• To increase concrete strength without the addition of further cement
owing to the reduced water requirement of a mix at a given workability;
this allows the production of high strength concrete.
• To reduce cement content of a mix at a given workability and strength by
reducing its water content while maintaining the original water-cement
ratio; this reduces the cost of a mix. The reduction in cement content will
result in lower maximum temperatures and hence reduce the risk of
shrinkage cracking.
 ADMIXTURES
• The effectiveness of a water-reducing
admixture at a given dosage is dependent on
cement type, aggregate type and grading, mix
proportions, and ambient temperature.
 ADMIXTURES
• Superplasticizers. These are a relatively new category of
water-reducing admixtures, and are most effective in
dispersing cement particles and thus in increasing the
concrete fluidity.

• The superplasticizers are commonly used to produce

flowing concrete, defined as having slump in excess of
200mm or a flow value within 510 to 620 mm, without
causing a strength reduction. The self-levelling property of
flowing concrete means that it can be placed with little or
no compaction and is therefore particularly suitable for
heavily reinforced and inaccessible sections, or where rapid
placement of concrete is required.
 ADMIXTURES
• To avoid bleeding, segregation and other adverse
effects which tend to occur in high workability
mixes it is important that the flowing concrete
mix design, production and handling are all
properly controlled. It should also be noted that
the flowing characteristics of a mix are retained
only for a short period of time, about 30 minutes
after the addition of the superplasticizer, and for
this reason superplasticizers should be added to
the mix immediately prior to its placing.
 ADMIXTURES
• Bonding admixtures. These are organic polymer
emulsions used to enhance the bonding properties of
concrete, particularly for patching and remedial work.
The bonding admixtures are known also to increase the
abrasion resistance of concrete and its tensile strength,
but some reduction in compressive strength also
occurs.

• Water-repelling agents. These are the least-effective of

all admixtures and are based on metallic soaps or
vegetable or mineral oils. Their use gives a slight
temporary reduction in concrete permeability.
 ADMIXTURES
• Pigments. Colouring pigments, in powder form, are normally used
in concrete for architectural purposes and the best effect is
produced when they are interground with the cement clinker rather
than added during mixing. Pigments do not normally affect the
concrete properties, although those based on carbon may cause
some loss of strength at early ages and can also reduce the
effectiveness of air-entraining admixtures.

• Pore fillers. These are chemically inactive finely ground materials

such as bentonite, kaolin or rock flow. These admixtures are
thought to improve workability, stability and impermeability of
concrete, and are used with poorly graded aggregates, but their use
may result in some reduction in concrete strength.
 ADMIXTURES
• Pozzolanas. The most commonly used
pozzolanas are pumicite and pulverized fuel
ash (pfa). Because of their reaction with lime,
which is liberated during the hydration of
Portland cement, these materials can improve
the durability when added to concrete. Since
they often retard the rate of setting and
hardening and thus the rate of heat evolution,
they can be useful in mass concrete work.