Data Management:

Quantifying Data & Planning Your

Analysis
Planning for Analysis

Type of Type of
Data Formatting

Type of
Analysis
Planning for Analysis

 A sound research plan successfully matches

these elements with the proper techniques

 Collect the type of data that is most appropriate

to answering your question and fits the other
parameters of your project (budget, personnel,
etc.)
Type of Data &
Formatting Technique

 Quantitative Data
– Must “quantify” the data
– Convert (“data reduce”) from collection format into
numeric database
 Qualitative Data
– Must process the data (type/enter/describe)
– Convert from audio/video to text
 Combination
– Process each element as appropriate
Type of Data & Analysis

 Quantitative Data
– Counts, frequencies, tallies
– Statistical analyses (as appropriate)
 Qualitative Data
– Coding
– Patterns, themes, theory building
 Combination
– Process each element as appropriate
Quantifying Data

Coding
Processing
Quantifying Data

 Before we can do any kind of analysis, we

need to quantify our data

 “Quantification” is the process of converting

data to a numeric format
– Convert social science data into a “machine-
readable” form, a form that can be read &
manipulated by computer programs
Quantifying Data

Some transformations are simple:

 Assign numeric representations to nominal or
ordinal variables:
– Turning male into “1” and female into “2”
– Assigning “3” to Very Interested, “2” to Somewhat
Interested, “1” to Not Interested
 Assign numeric values to continuous variables:
– Turning born in 1973 to “35”
– Number of children = “02”
Developing Code Categories

Some data are more challenging. Open-ended

responses must be coded.

 Two basic approaches:

– Begin with a coding scheme derived from the
research purpose.
– Generate codes from the data.
Coding Quantitative Data

 Goal – reduce a wide variety of information to a

more limited set of variable attributes:
– “What is your occupation?”
 Use pre-established scheme: Professional, Managerial,
Clerical, Semi-skilled, etc.
 Create a scheme after reviewing the data
 Assign value to each category in the scheme: Professional
= 1, Managerial = 2, etc.
 Classify the response: “Secretary” is “clerical” and is coded
as “3”
Coding Quantitative Data

 Points to remember:
– If the data are coded to maintain a good amount of
detail, they can always be combined (reduced) later
– However, if you start off with too little detail, you
can’t get it back
– If you’re using a survey / questionnaire, it’s a good
idea to do your coding on the form so that it can be
entered properly (i.e. create a “codebook”)
Codebook Construction

Purposes:
 Primary guide used in the coding process.
– Should note the value assigned to each variable
attribute (response)
 Guide for locating variables and interpreting
codes in the data file during analysis.
 If you’re doing your own input, this will also
guide data set construction
Hands-on Exercise 1

 Create a mini-codebook by coding the survey

instrument
– Note column spaces / locations
– Note variable attribute values
– Pay attention to the box at the bottom, special
instructions
Entering Data

 Optical scan sheets (usually ASCII output).

– Limits possible responses

 CATI system / On-line: entered while collected

 Data entry specialists enter the data into an SPSS data

matrix, Excel spreadsheet, or ASCII file.
– Typically, work off a coded questionnaire
Entering Data

 In Excel or Access, follow procedures from

class:
– Format tables with proper variable columns
– Enter data for each case
 In SPSS
– Import an ASCII file and name variables/column
headings
– Or, create variables/column headings & enter each
case
Entering Data

 ASCII files are useful because they can be

transformed or used in almost all analysis
programs
 Upload to SPSS, Excel, or use directly with
SAS
Entering Data

Into an ASCII file

 Using notepad
 Use your coded survey
to show you the proper
entry order
Entering Data

Into an ASCII file

 Use the Command
prompt (Accessories
Command Prompt)
 Type “Edit”
Entering Data

 If you open an ASCII file

in Excel, you’ll get a
wizard to convert the
data
 Delimited or Fixed width
 If Fixed width, add
column breaks
 Opens as Excel
workbook
Hands-on Exercise 2

 Complete the survey (fill-in your answers)

 Create a ‘dataset’
 Enter the data from your survey using either
Notepad or the Edit program from the
Command prompt
Quantitative Analysis
Quantitative Analysis

 You should choose a level of analysis that is

appropriate for your research question

 You should choose the type of statistical

analysis appropriate for the variables you have
– Nominal/Categorical, Ordinal, or Continuous
Quantitative Levels of Analysis

 Univariate - simplest form,describe a case in

terms of a single variable.
 Bivariate - subgroup comparisons, describe a
case in terms of two variables simultaneously.
 Multivariate - analysis of two or more variables
simultaneously.
Univariate Analysis

 Describing a case in terms of the distribution of

attributes that comprise it.
Example:
– Gender - number of women, number of men.

 You should always begin your analysis by

running the basic univariate frequencies and
checking to be sure data were entered properly
Univariate Analysis

 Frequency distributions

 Measures of central tendency

– Mean, Median, Mode
Presenting Univariate Data

Goals:
 Provide reader with the fullest degree of detail
regarding the data.
 Present data in a manageable from.
 Simple and straightforward
Subgroup Comparisons

 Describe subsets of cases, subjects or

respondents.
Examples
 "Collapsing" response categories:
– Age categories, Open responses, etc.
 Handling "don't knows“
– Code separately, make missing if appropriate
Bivariate Analysis

 Describe a case in terms of two variables

simultaneously.
– Example:
 Gender
 Attitudes toward equality for men and women
 How does a respondent’s gender affect his or her attitude
toward equality for men and women?
 Crosstabulations / Correlations
Constructing Bivariate Tables

 Divide cases into groups according to the

attributes of the independent variable.
 Describe each subgroup in terms of attributes
of the dependent variable.
 Read the table by comparing the independent
variable subgroups in terms of a given attribute
of the dependent variable.
 DV goes in the rows, IV goes in the columns
Bivariate Analysis

 Bivariate Tables / Crosstabs are appropriate for

all types of variables, but the proper inferential
statistic will vary by variable type

 Continuous variables are typically made into

categorical variables for this type of analysis
– Recode variables
– Example: Create “Age” (18-34, 35-50, 51-65, 66+)
Appropriate Types of Analysis
Bivariate Analysis: Correlations

 Bivariate correlation analysis is appropriate for

continuous variables (interval, ratio)
 Other types of variables are often recoded into
‘Dummy’ variables (value 0 or 1) for these
purposes
– Example: Gender becomes two variables ‘Male’
(1=yes) & ‘Female’ (1=yes)
 Present in Correlation Matrix
Multivariate Analysis

 Analysis of more than two variables

simultaneously.
 Can be used to understand the relationship
between multiple variables more fully.
 Most typical: Regression analysis
Multivariate Analysis

 Ordinal (technically inappropriate but it

happens), continuous, dummy variables

 Type of regression analysis will depend on the

type of variables
– OLS (continuous)
– Logistic (other types)
Plan Your Analysis

Time Management
Planning your analysis

 Leave enough time for data entry and data

formatting
– Can take much longer than you expect
 In your codebook – note the TYPE of variable
for each measurement/question
 This will allow you to plan the proper levels and
types of analysis
Planning your analysis

 If your research question requires a level of

analysis your variables won’t allow, you’ll need
to transform them
– Create ‘dummy’ variables
– Collapse categories

 Determine the level of significance acceptable

& apply proper tests
Planning your analysis

 Proper planning will make things easier later

 Take good notes on any transformations, etc.

that you do
 Save all the elements of your analysis
programs