LECTURE NOTES

FUNDAMENTAL OF THERMODYNAMICS
( MEG 201)

DR GBEMI SOBAMOWO
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
University of Lagos
Nigeria
 LECTURE 1

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS

 BRIEF HISTORY OF THERMODYNAMICS

The principles of thermodynamics have been in existence since the

creation of the universe. The emergence of the principle occured when
Thomas Savery in 1697 and Thomas Newcomen in 1712 first
successful constructed atmospheric steam engines in England . The
inefficiency of the engine pave way for the development of a new
science. This development led to the simultaneous uprising of the first
and second laws of thermodynamics in 1850s, primarily out of the
works of William Rankine, Rudolph Clausius, and Lord Kelvin
(formerly William Thomson). Lord Kelvin who is generally referred
to as the father of thermodynamics, first used term thermodynamics in
his publication in 1849. And such term was concreted through the first
thermodynamic textbook written in 1859 by William Rankine, a
professor at the University of Glasgow.
Below, are the summary of the important milestones in the development of this science
in the past 200 years.
- 1816, Robert Stirling patented the first engine using air as the working fluid.
−1824, Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot published his work on thermodynamic cycles and the
second law of thermodynamics.
− Early 1840s, Julius Robert Mayer and James Prescott Joule introduced theories of the
equivalency of heat and mechanical work.
− 1847, Helmholtz formulated the principle of conservation of energy and Emile Clapeyron
expanded Carnot’s work
− 1848, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) defined the absolute temperature scale based on
the Carnot cycle.
− 1850, Rudolph Clausius introduced the concept of internal energy, distinguished the
specific heat at constant volume from the specific heat at constant pressure, and clarified the
distinction between the first and the second laws of thermodynamics.
1859, William Rankine who had been working towards the improvement of practical steam
cycles, defined the thermodynamic efficiency of a heat engine, introduced the pressure-
specific volume diagram, and published the first thermodynamics textbook.
− 1862, Nikolaus Otto introduced the Otto cycle for reciprocating internal combustion
engines.
1865, Clausius defined the first law of thermodynamics as “the energy of the universe is
constant” and the second law of thermodynamics, “the entropy of the universe tends toward a
maximum”.
− 1875, Josiah Willard Gibbs developed the temperature-entropy diagram.
−1878, Gibbs published his work on thermodynamic equilibrium. Gibbs established the field
of physical chemistry on the basis of thermodynamics and contributed much towards the
establishment of the field of statistical thermodynamics.
− 1879, Gottlieb Daimler obtained a patent for a multi-cylinder engine operating on a
common crankshaft.
−1893, Rudolph Diesel introduced the diesel cycle working on the principle of compression
stroke to obtain high temperatures for combustion.
− 1897, Max Planck stated the second law of thermodynamics.
−1899, Karl Benz improved Daimler’s engine by introducing the controlled timing electric
ignition system.
.
.
In 2016, you were thought the Fundamental of thermodynamics.
 WHAT IS THERMODYNAMICS ?
The word thermodynamics was derived from the two Greek words THERME
which means heat and DYNAMIS which means power. It is most descriptive of
the early efforts to convert heat into power. It is simply defined as the science
that deals with matter, energy, and the laws governing their interactions. It is
now broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations,
such as power generation, refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of
heat, work and properties of a system. Its study includes two approaches, namely
Classical and Statistical thermodynamics. The Classical thermodynamics is
concerned primarily with the macroscopic behaviour of matter. It addresses the gross
characteristics of large aggregations of molecules and not the behaviour of individual
molecules While Statistical thermodynamics is deals with the microscopic
behaviour of matter in transforming work and heat with the methods of statistics in
determining quantities of interest. The microstructure of matter is studied in kinetic
theory and statistical mechanics (including quantum thermodynamics).
 Importance of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics, as the most fundamental subject in the field of thermal

sciences. Thermodynamics plays a vital role in the design and operation of
power plants (fossil, nuclear, and solar), direct energy conversion (thermoelectric,
thermionic, magnetohydrodynamic, and photovoltaic), heating and cooling systems
(boilers, fan coolers, heat pumps, refrigerators, radiators, steam generators, and
other heat exchangers), chemical plants (petrochemical refineries, water
desalination, air separation, paper production, and pharmaceutical plants),
bioengineering systems (lasers, life support systems, artificial heart, CAT scans),
and various types of engines (automotive engines, ships, aviation gas turbines, and
spacecrafts) among others. Such societal problems as energy shortages, air
pollution, and waste management are better understood and remedied through the
application of the laws of thermodynamics.
 APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS

The application of thermodynamics is quite enormous. Indeed, it

could be seen in all activities in nature involving some interaction
between energy and matter. Drawing from the pool of various
applications of thermodynamics, we presented the following
examples; electric or gas range, the heating and air-conditioning
systems, the refrigerator, the humidifier, the pressure cooker, the
water heater, the shower, the iron, and even the computer and the
TV, design and analysis of automotive engines, rockets, jet engines,
and conventional or nuclear power plants, solar collectors, and the
design of vehicles from ordinary cars to airplanes.
 Some Other areas of APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS
Also, the principles of thermodynamics and other engineering sciences, such as fluid mechanics and
heat and mass transfer has been used by engineers to model, analyze and design things intended to
meet human needs. Various applications of these thermodynamic principles help in the design of
pictorial views of some areas of APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS
pictorial views of some areas of APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS
 Diesel Engine
• Air Cleaner
• Valves
• Pistons
• Self
• Diesel Filter
• Gear Box
• Bracket
• Oil chamber
• Radiator
Diesel Engine
• Diesel Filter
• Oil Filter
• Nosils and Automizer
• Gear Box
• Crank Shaft
• Engine Block
• Engine Head
• Cam Shaft
Piston and Piston Parts
 Main Piston Parts
• Piston
• Piston Rod
• Crosshead
• Connecting Rod
• Crank Shaft
Stroking in internal compression Engine

1. Intake
Combustible mixtures are emplaced in
the combustion chamber.

2. Compression
The mixtures are placed under pressure.

3. Combustion / Expansion
The mixture is burnt, almost invariably
a deflagration, although a few systems
involve detonation. The got mixture is
expanded, pressing on & moving parts of the
engine & performing useful work.

4. Exhaust
The cooled combustion products are
 THERMODYNAMICS SYSTEM
An important step in any engineering analysis is to describe precisely what is
being studied. In a thermodynamic analysis, the system is the subject of
the investigation. It is whatever we want to study. It can also be
defined as a specified quantity of matter and/or a region that can be
separated from everything else by a well-defined surface or a quantity
of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The mass or region
outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or imaginary
surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the
control surface or system boundary. This control surface may be
movable or fixed. A system of fixed mass is referred to as a control
mass or as a closed system. When there is flow of mass through the
control surface, the system is called a control volume, or open system.
An isolated system is a closed system that does not interact in any way
with its surroundings.
In Closed system the mass of a closed system is always constant. Open system is the most widely used
means of analyzing thermodynamic processes. An open system may also be treated as a closed system by
letting the system boundary change with the moving flow, and hence to encompass the same amount of
mass at all times. Changes in the energy content of a closed system may also be due to such processes as
thermal conduction, radiation, mechanical compression or expansion, and such fields as gravitational or
electromagnetic.
 CLOSED AND OPEN SYSTEMs
Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed
mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study. A closed system (also
known as a control mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass
can cross its boundary. In such a system, no mass can enter or leave a closed
system but energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and the
volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed. This means that, the same
collection of matter resides within the boundary of the system throughout the
period of observation. However, if mass and energy are allowed to cross the
boundary such system is called an open system, or a control volume.
Examples of such system are mass flow through compressor, turbine, or
nozzle. The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and
they can be real or imaginary. A system of special case that neither mass nor
energy is allowed to cross the boundary is called an isolated system. Such
system has no interaction whatsoever with its surrounding. In general, very few
real life applications qualify as isolated systems.
PICTORIAL VIEWs OF CLOSED AND OPEN SYSTEMS
MACROSCOPIC AND MICROSCOPIC VIEWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

Systems can be studied from a macroscopic or a microscopic point of view. The macroscopic
approach to thermodynamics is concerned with the gross or overall behaviour. This is sometimes
called classical thermodynamics. No model of the structure of matter at the molecular, atomic, and
subatomic levels is directly used in classical thermodynamics. Although the behaviour of systems is
affected by molecular structure, classical thermodynamics allows important aspects of system
behaviour to be evaluated from observations of the overall system.
The microscopic approach to thermodynamics, known as statistical thermodynamics, is concerned
directly with the structure of matter. The objective of statistical thermodynamics is to characterize
by statistical means the average behaviour of the particles making up a system of interest and relate
this information to the observed macroscopic behaviour of the system. For applications involving
lasers, plasmas, high-speed gas flows, chemical kinetics, very low temperatures (cryogenics), and
others, the methods of statistical thermodynamics are essential. Moreover, the microscopic approach
is instrumental in developing certain data, for example, ideal gas specific heats
For the great majority of engineering applications, classical thermodynamics not only provides a
considerably more direct approach for analysis and design but also requires far fewer mathematical
complications. For these reasons the macroscopic viewpoint is the one adopted in this course. When
it serves to promote understanding, however, concepts are interpreted from the microscopic point of
view.
 THERMODYNAMICS STATE AND PROPERTY
Thermodynamic State and Thermodynamic Property
The particular condition of a system at any instant of time is called its state. In order
to describe a system and predict its behaviour, we require the knowledge of its
properties and how those properties are related. The state of a system at a given
instant of time is described by its properties . A Property is any quantity whose
numerical value depends on the state but not the history of the system. It could also
be defined as a macroscopic characteristic of a system such as mass, volume,
energy, pressure, and temperature to which a numerical value can be assigned at a
given time without the knowledge of the previous behaviour (history) of the system.
The value of a property is determined in principle by some type of physical
operation or test and this property could be extensive and intensive in nature.
If a system exhibits the same values of its properties at two different times, it is in
the same state at these times. i.e if none of its properties changes with time, the
system is said to be at a steady state otherwise, it is in an unsteady state.
Thermodynamic properties are such quantities as pressure (P), density (ρ ), temperature
(T), enthalpy (H), entropy (S), specific heat (cp and cv), coefficient of thermal expansion (β ),
and bulk modulus (B).
 EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE Properties OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

Extensive properties depend on the size , mass or extent of the system. Volume,
mass, energy, momentum and entropy are examples of extensive properties. A
property is called extensive if its value for an overall system is the sum of its
values for the parts into which the system is divided. Mass, volume, energy, and
several other properties introduced later are extensive. Extensive properties
depend on the size or extent of a system. The extensive properties of a system can
change with time, and many thermodynamic analyses consist mainly of carefully
accounting for changes in extensive properties such as mass and energy as a
system interacts with its surroundings. Intensive properties are independent of the
size, mass or extent of the system. Intensive properties are not additive in the
sense previously considered. Their values may vary from place to place within
the system at any moment. Thus, intensive properties may be functions of both
position and time, whereas extensive properties vary at most with time. Pressure,
temperature, specific volume and density are examples of intensive properties.
When an extensive property is reported on a unit mass or a unit mole basis, it is
called a specific property.
We could say that Extensive and intensive properties are defined to distinguish properties
that depend on the size of the system (extensive) from those that do not depend on the size of
the system (intensive).

Examples of extensive properties include volume (V), mass (m), momentum (mV),
enthalpy (H), and entropy (S) are examples of extensive properties.

Examples of intensive properties include temperature (T), pressure (P), density (ρ = m/V),
specific volume (v= V/m), specific enthalpy (h = H/m) and specific entropy (s = S/m).
Examples of extensive and intensive properties
THERMODYNAMICS STATE AND PROPERTies
 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS, PATH AND CYCLE
Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called
a process, i.e When any property of a system changes in value there is a change in
state, and the system is said to undergo a process. The series of states through
which a system passes while undergoing a change from one state to another is
called thermodynamic path.
When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally
close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi-static, or quasi-
equilibrium, process. A path is identifiable only when a quasi-equilibrium is
taking place. This quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow
process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that properties in one
part of the system do not change any faster than those at other parts.
When a system in a given initial state goes through a sequence of processes and
finally returns to its initial state, it is said to have undergone a cycle. The initial and
the final states are identical i.e at the conclusion of a cycle all properties have the same
values they had at the beginning. Consequently, over the cycle the system experiences no net
change of state.
AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM IS AN EXAMPLE OF SYSTEM WHERE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE OCCURS
AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM IS AN EXAMPLE OF SYSTEM WHERE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE OCCURS
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM IS AN EXAMPLE OF SYSTEM WHERE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE OCCURS
Internal combustion engine IS AN EXAMPLE OF SYSTEM WHERE THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE OCCURS
 Reversible AND IRREVERSIBLE processes

A process is said to be reversible if it is possible for its effects to be eradicated in

the sense that there is some way by which both the system and its surroundings
can be exactly restored to their respective initial states. A process is irreversible if
there is no way to undo it. That is, there is no means by which the system and its
surroundings can be exactly restored to their respective initial states.
Irreversibilities could be internal and external. Internal irreversibilities are those
that occur within the system, while external irreversibilities are those that occur
within the surroundings, normally the immediate surroundings.
There are many effects whose presence during a process renders it irreversible.
These include, but are not limited to, the following: heat transfer through a finite
temperature difference; unrestrained expansion of a gas or liquid to a lower
pressure; spontaneous chemical reaction; mixing of matter at different
compositions or states; friction (sliding friction as well as friction in the flow of
fluids); electric current flow through a resistance; magnetization or polarization
with hysteresis; and inelastic deformation.
 PHASE AND PURE SUBSTANCE
The term phase refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in both chemical
composition and physical structure. Homogeneity in physical structure means that the matter is all
solid, or all liquid , or all vapour (or, equivalently, all gas). A system can contain one or more
phases. For example, a system of liquid water and water vapour (steam) contains two phases.
A pure substance is the one that is uniform and invariable in chemical composition i.e. same
chemical composition in various phases. A pure substance can exist in more than one phase,
but its chemical composition must be the same in each phase. For example, if liquid water
and water vapour form a system with two phases, the system can be regarded as a pure
substance because each phase has the same composition. Water, for example, is a pure
substance as it has the same chemical composition whether in the form of steam, ice, or
liquid water. A uniform mixture of gases can be regarded as a pure substance provided it
remains a gas and does not react chemically. A system consisting of air can be regarded as a
pure substance as long as it is a mixture of gases; but if a liquid phase should form on
cooling, the liquid would have a different composition from the gas phase, and the system
would no longer be considered a pure substance. Air, being a mixture of various gases, is not
a pure substance, as in very low temperatures various components would condense at
different temperatures resulting in a different chemical composition in the liquid phase.
The nature of phases that coexist in equilibrium is addressed by the phase rule
 THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
Classical thermodynamics places primary emphasis on equilibrium states and changes from
one equilibrium state to another. Thus, the concept of equilibrium is fundamental. In
mechanics, equilibrium means a condition of balance maintained by an equality of
opposing forces. In thermodynamics, the concept is more far-reaching, including not only a
balance of forces but also a balance of other influences. Each kind of influence refers to a
particular aspect of thermodynamic, or complete, equilibrium. Accordingly, several types of
equilibrium must exist individually to fulfill the condition of complete equilibrium; among
these are thermal, mechanical, phase, and chemical equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium
refers to an equality of temperature, Mechanical equilibrium to an equality of pressure, and
Phase equilibrium to an equality of chemical potentials (Multi-component Systems).
Chemical equilibrium is also established in terms of chemical potentials (Reaction
Equilibrium). For complete equilibrium, the several types of equilibrium must exist
individually. To test if a system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, when such system is
isolated, if it cannot interact with its surroundings; however, its state can change as a
consequence of spontaneous events occurring internally as its intensive properties, such as
temperature and pressure, tend toward uniform values. When all such changes cease, the
system is in equilibrium at the moment it was isolated .
 More notes on actual and quasi-equilibrium processes

There is no requirement that a system undergoing an actual process be in equilibrium

during the process. Some or all of the intervening states may be non-equilibrium states.
For many such processes we are limited to knowing the state before the process occurs and
the state after the process is completed. However, even if the intervening states of the
system are not known, it is often possible to evaluate certain overall effects that occur
during the process.
Processes are sometimes modeled as an idealized type of process called a quasi-
equilibrium (or quasi-static) process. A quasi-equilibrium process is one in which the
departure from thermodynamic equilibrium is at most infinitesimal. All states through
which the system passes in a quasi-equilibrium process may be considered equilibrium
states. Because non-equilibrium effects are inevitably present during actual processes,
systems of engineering interest can at best approach, but never realize, a quasi-equilibrium
process.
The quasi-equilibrium process concept is instrumental in deducing relationships that exist
among the properties of systems at equilibrium
 More notes on terminologies used in thermodynamics

Isobaric is a process that takes place at constant pressure, such as boiling water in an open container.
Isothermal process (or hyperbolic process) is a process that takes place at constant temperature. For
example, steam condensation on the cold walls of a sauna.
Isochoric (also known as isometric) is a process that takes place at constant volume, such as heating a
gas in a sealed rigid vessel.
Isentropic (also known as reversible adiabatic ) is a process that takes place at constant entropy or a
process in which no heat is added or taken from the system. such as heating a gas in a sealed insulated
vessel .
Isentalpic process is a process that takes place at constant enthalpy. Such as flow of gas throttle valve.
Polytropic process is a process that all the thermodynamic properties varies.
Temperature is a measure of coldness or hotness of a body and is expressed in either Fahrenheit (F) or
Celsius (C).
Specific volume of a substance is the inverse of the density of that substance.
Standard condition refers to a temperature of 0 C (273 K) and atmospheric pressure (760 mm of mercury,
Hg). Since volume and density of gases are sensitive to relatively small changes in temperature and
pressure, it is customary to reduce all gas volumes to standard conditions for purpose of comparison.
Specific gravity (Sg) of a liquid is the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water. Specific
gravity of a gas is the ratio of the molecular weight of a gas to the molecular weight of air.
Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a homogenous phase
of a substance by one degree. If the process takes place with either volume or pressure kept constant, the
term is respectively referred to as constant-volume (cv) or constant-pressure (cp) specific heat,
Energy is the capacity to do work. It is a system quantity that describes the thermodynamic state of the
system.
Kinetic energy (KE) of a system is the energy associated with the motion of a system relative to a frame
of reference
Potential energy (PE) of a system is the energy associated with the position.
Total energy of a system (E) is the summation of all the energies possessed by the system including
potential, kinetic, and internal energies.
Internal energy (U) of a system is the total energy of the system minus the potential and the kinetic
energies, U = E – (KE + PE). The internal energy represents the energy on the microscopic level. It
consists of such energies as nuclear and molecular binding energies, molecular rotation, translation, and
vibration, intermolecular weak and strong energies, mass equivalent energy, and such other microscopic
energies associated with the nuclear and electron spin.
Enthalpy (H) of a system is defined as the summation of the internal energy (U) and pressure work
(PV), as in H = U + PV. Enthalpy and internal energy have units of J
Entropy (S) is a measure of the disorder of a system. The change in the entropy of a system is always
greater, or at least equal, to the heat transfer to or from the system divided by the temperature of the
system.
Specific heat (cv). The specific heat of a substance at constant specific volume is defined as cv = (∂u /
∂T )v , where u, the specific internal energy, is given as u = U/m.
Specific heat (cp). The specific heat of a substance at constant pressure is defined as c p = (∂h / ∂T)P ,
where h, the specific enthalpy, is given as h = H/m.
Critical state of a substance is a state beyond which a liquid-vapor transformation is not possible. For
water, the critical pressure is Pc = 22 MPa (3203.6 psia), and critical temperature is Tc = 374.15 C
(705.47 F).
Critical properties. Pressure, temperature, and specific volume (Pc, Tc, vc) of the critical state are
referred to as critical properties. Using Pc and Tc for water, the critical volume for water is given as vc
= 0.0505 ft3/lbm.
Reduced properties refers to the ratios of pressure and temperature normalized to corresponding
critical pressure and temperature, respectively (PR = P/Pc and TR = T/Tc).
Adiabatic process refers to a thermodynamic process where there is no heat transfer to or from the
system.
Reversible is an ideal process which, at the conclusion of the process, can be reversed to bring the
system and its surroundings to the same exact condition as it was prior to the original process.
Heat is a form of energy in transition. It is transferred due to a temperature gradient between two
systems or a system and its surroundings, in the direction of decreasing temperature.
Saturation temperature is the temperature at which boiling takes place at a given pressure.
Saturated liquid or vapor is a state of a substance at which change in phase takes place while the
substance temperature remains constant. At saturation, the substance pressure is referred to as the vapor
pressure. The vapor pressure is a function of temperature hence it remains constant during the phase
change.
Subcooled or compressed liquid is a liquid phase of a substance, which exists at a temperature less than
the saturation temperature corresponding to the substance pressure.
Superheated vapor is the vapor phase of a substance that exists at a temperature greater than the
saturation temperature corresponding to the substance pressure.
TIME FOR QUESTIONS

QUESTION ?
 LECTURE 2
THERMODYNAMICS QUANTITIES AND UNITS
 Dimensions and units

Dimensions are names applied to such physical quantities as length (L), mass (m),
time (t), and temperature (T). These dimensions are known as the primary
dimensions*. We may also include the electric current (q) and the luminous intensity
(I) as primary dimensions. All other physical quantities can be expressed in terms of
these primary or fundamental dimensions. It is of prime importance to ensure the
dimensional validity of engineering formulae derived from the first principles.
Hence, the dimensions of both sides of an equation must match. This is known
as the principle of dimensional homogeneity.
Units are measures of a dimension and depend on the standard used for the unit
system. There are two unit systems in use, the SI (short for its French expression,
Le Systeme Internationale d’Unites) system of units and the English engineering
system of units, referred to in this book as British Units, or BU for short. In the table
below, units of the primary dimensions are expressed in both SI and BU.
PHYSICAL Quantities and their units IN THERMODYNAMICS

When engineering calculations are performed, it is necessary to be concerned with the

units of the physical quantities involved. A unit is any specified amount of a quantity by
comparison with which any other quantity of the same kind is measured. For example,
meters, centimeters, kilometers, feet, inches, and miles are all units of length. Seconds,
minutes, and hours are alternative time units. Milligram, gram and kilograms are all units
of mass. Because these physical quantities are related by definitions and laws, a relatively
small number of physical quantities suffice to conceive of and measure all others. These
may be called primary or fundamental dimensions. The others may be measured in terms
of the primary dimensions and are called secondary or derived dimensions.
The commonly used primary dimensions that suffice for applications in mechanics are
mass, length, and time. Additional primary dimensions are required when additional
physical phenomena come under consideration. Temperature is included for
thermodynamics, and electric current is introduced for applications involving electricity.
Once a set of primary dimensions is adopted, a base or fundamental unit for each
primary dimension is specified. Units for all other quantities are then derived in terms of
the base units
Système International d’Unités, (International System of Units, SI Units )

The system of units called SI, takes mass, length, and time as primary dimensions and regards force as
secondary. SI is the abbreviation for Système International d’Unités (International System of Units),
which is the legally accepted system in most countries. The conventions of the SI are published and
controlled by an international treaty organization.
The SI base unit for temperature is the kelvin, K. The SI base unit of mass is the kilogram, kg. It is
equal to the mass of a particular cylinder of platinum–iridium alloy kept by the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures near Paris. The mass standard for the United States is maintained by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology. The kilogram is the only base unit still defined relative
to a fabricated object.
The SI base unit of length is the meter (metre), m, defined as the length of the path traveled by light in
a vacuum during a specified time interval. The base unit of time is the second, s. The second is defined
as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation associated with a specified transition of the
cesium atom.
The SI unit of force, called the newton, is a secondary unit, defined in terms of the base units for mass,
length, and time. Newton’s second law of motion states that the net force acting on a body is
proportional to the product of the mass and the acceleration. The Newton is defined so that the
proportionality constant in the expression is equal to unity. The Newton, N, is the force required to
accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram at the rate of 1 meter per second per second.
SI units for other physical quantities are also derived in terms of the SI base units. Some of
the derived units occur so frequently that they are given special names and symbols, such as
the Newton. SI units for quantities pertinent to thermodynamics are given in Table below

Since it is frequently necessary to work with extremely large or small values when using the SI
unit system, a set of standard prefixes is provided in Table below for simplicity .
 MEASURABLE PROPERTIES IN THERMODYNAMICS

Three intensive properties that are particularly important in engineering thermodynamics are
specific volume, pressure, and temperature.
The specific volume v is defined as the reciprocal of the density, It is the volume per unit mass. Like
density, specific volume is an intensive property and may vary from point to point. SI units for density
and specific volume are kg/m3 and m3/kg, respectively. However, they are also often expressed,
respectively, as g/cm3 and cm3/g.
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Pressure at the point is the same in all directions as long as
the fluid is at rest. This is a consequence of the equilibrium of forces acting on an element of volume
surrounding the point. However, the pressure can vary from point to point within a fluid at rest;
examples are the variation of atmospheric pressure with elevation and the pressure variation with depth
in oceans, lakes, and other bodies of water. The SI unit of pressure is pascal. However, in this text it is
convenient to work with multiples of the pascal: the kPa, the bar, and the MPa.
Pressure as discussed above is called absolute pressure. Although absolute pressures must be used in
thermodynamic relations, pressure-measuring devices often indicate the difference between the
absolute pressure in a system and the absolute pressure of the atmosphere existing outside the
measuring device. The magnitude of the difference is called a gage pressure or a vacuum pressure.
The term gage pressure is applied when the pressure in the system is greater than the local
atmospheric pressure. When the local atmospheric pressure is greater than the pressure in the system,
the term vacuum pressure is used. The relationship among the various ways of expressing pressure
measurements is shown in Fig. 1.5.
 MEASURING TEMPERATURE
Like force, a concept of temperature originates with our sense perceptions. It is rooted in the notion of
the “hotness” or “coldness” of a body. We use our sense of touch to distinguish hot bodies from cold
bodies and to arrange bodies in their order of “hotness,” deciding that 1 is hotter than 2, 2 hotter than
3, and so on. However sensitive the human body may be, we are unable to gauge this quality
precisely. Accordingly, thermometers and temperature scales have been devised to measure it.
Any body with at least one measurable property that changes as its temperature changes can be used
as a thermometer. Such a property is called a thermometric property. The particular substance that
exhibits changes in the thermometric property is known as a thermometric substance. A familiar
device for temperature measurement is the liquid-in-glass thermometer (a) . The other include
Infrared sensing ear thermometer( b) and thermocouple. A good thermometer should posses desirable
characteristics of sensitivity, accuracy, reproducibility and fast response.
 THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in

thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other. This serves as a basis for the validity of
temperature measurement. By replacing the third body with a
thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even
if they are not in contact. This law was first formulated and labelled
by R. H. Fowler in 1931. As the name suggests, its value as a
fundamental physical principle was recognized more than half a
century after the formulation of the first and the second laws of
thermodynamics. It was named the zeroth law since it should have
preceded the first and the second laws of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamic temperature scales

The common temperature scales used in the SI and in the English

system today are the Celsius scale (formerly called the
centigrade scale; in 1948 it was renamed after the Swedish
astronomer A. Celsius, 1702–1744, who devised it) and the
Fahrenheit scale (named after the German instrument maker
G. Fahrenheit, 1686–1736). In order to have a temperature scale
that is independent of the properties of any substance or
substances, a thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI called
Kelvin scale, named after Lord Kelvin (1824–1907) was
developed. The temperature unit on this scale is the Kelvin,
which is designated by K (not °K; the degree symbol was
officially dropped from Kelvin in 1967). The English system
uses a thermodynamic temperature scale called Rankine scale,
named after William Rankine (1820–1872). The temperature
unit on this scale is the Rankine, which is designated by R.
 Temperature and its scale

A scale of temperature independent of the thermometric substance called a

thermodynamic temperature scale. The Kelvin scale, a thermodynamic scale, can
be elicited from the second law of thermodynamics . The Celsius temperature scale
(also called the centigrade scale) uses the degree Celsius (°C), which has the
same magnitude as the Kelvin. Thus, temperature Differences are identical on both
scales. However, the zero point on the Celsius scale is shifted to 273.15 K, as
shown in the relationship between the Celsius temperature and the Kelvin
temperature:
FAHRENHEIT SCALE

T ( o F )  T ( o R)  459.67 T ( o F )  1.8T ( o C )  32

KELVIN SCALE RANKINE SCALE

T ( K )  T (oC )  273.15 T ( oR)  1.8T ( K )
TIME FOR QUESTIONS

QUESTION ?
 LECTURE 3

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics states that when a process undergoes a

thermodynamics cycle, the net heat exchange between the system and its
surrounding is equal to the net workdone between the system and its
surroundings. This actually mean that when energy is exchanged between a
system and its surroundings, the final total energy for the universe (system and its
surroundings) equals the initial total energy for the universe (system and its
surroundings). From the law, it could be concluded therefore that the energy for an
isolated system remains constant. Robert Fludd in 1618, proposed a machine which
violates this law and the machine is termed Perpetual motion machine of the first
kind (PMM1) but this machine has never worked. While the fact that the machine
never worked was no proof of the first law of thermodynamics (which was
promulgated a little over two centuries later), this fact remains part of the evidence
for accepting the law. A major corollary of the first law of thermodynamics is that
a PMM1 is impossible.
 HEAT
Heat
Closed systems can also interact with their surroundings in a way that cannot be
categorized as work, as, for example, a gas (or liquid) contained in a closed vessel
undergoing a process while in contact with a flame. The quantity denoted by Q
accounts for the amount of energy transferred to a closed system during a process by
means other than work. The quantities symbolized by W and Q account for transfers
of energy. The terms work and heat denote different means whereby energy is
transferred and not what is transferred. Work and heat are not properties, and it is
improper to speak of work or heat “contained” in a system. However, to achieve
economy of expression in subsequent discussions, W and Q are often referred to
simply as work and heat transfer, respectively.
Q > 0 heat transfer to the system
Q< 0 heat transfer from the system
 ENERGY AND WORK
ENERGY
Energy is a fundamental concept of thermodynamics and one of the most significant aspects
of engineering analysis. Energy can be stored within systems in various macroscopic forms:
kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, and internal energy. Energy can also be
transformed from one form to another and Transferred between systems. For closed
systems, energy can be transferred by work and heat transfer. The total amount of energy is
conserved in all transformations and transfers.
A useful part of energy available in a system is called Exergy while the unuseful part is
called Anergy.
WORK
In thermodynamics, the term work denotes a means for transferring energy. Work is an
effect of one system on another that is identified and measured as follows: work is done by
a system on its surroundings. Work done by a system is considered positive: W > 0. Work
done on a system is considered negative: W < 0. The time rate of doing work, or power, is
symbolized by and adheres to the same sign convention.
 THE second LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The Second law of thermodynamics was stated in two different statement for
two entirely different situations but if one examined critically, they are
fundamentally and logically equivalent statement of the same principle.
Kelvin-Plank Statement: It is impossible to construct a device that will operate in
a cycle and produces no effect other than raising of a weight and the exchange of
heat between the device and a single reservoir. John Gamgee in the1880s,
proposed an ammonia engine which violates the the Kelvin-Planck Statement and
the machine is termed Perpetual motion machine of the second kind (PMM2) but
no one has ever got the proposed machine by Gamgee to work. Indeed a major
corollary of the Second law of thermodynamics is that a PMM2 is impossible.
Clausius Statement: It is impossible to construct a device that will operate in a
cycle and produces no effect other than transfer of heat from a low temperature
body to a high temperature body. By intuition and experience, this machine is
not possible.
 THE third LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The Third Law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a pure

substance approaches zero as the temperature of the substance
approaches absolute zero temperature. This means that the entropy of a
pure substance or perfect crystal is zero at absolute zero temperature.
Non-crystalline substances have finite value of entropy at absolute zero
temperature because of the level of randomness in their structure.
Therefore, a perfect crystal has the maximum degree of order at that
temperature.
It should be noted that while the Third Law deals with entropy at
absolute zero temperature, the Second Law deals with entropy as a
property without any consideration given to the base values of this
property, the First Law provides information on internal energy and
Zeroth law with deals temperature measurement.
TIME FOR QUESTIONS

QUESTION ?