11 STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION

HISTORY

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HISTORY

Metals In Pre-Modern Building

Construction
• Greek and Roman: bronze
cramps used to join blocks of
stone
• Renaissance: wrought iron
chains and rods used to
counter thrusts in arches and
vaults
• Steel produced in quantities
too small for use in building
construction
• Making steel was labor intensive
• Limited uses, for weapons (e.g.,
Damascus steel swords), cutlery,
other specialties
• Right: Iron tie rods and
cramps in masonry
construction, Pantheon, Paris,
1789

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 HISTORY

1750 +
• Growth in use of cast iron for
framing in industrial buildings
and other structures
• Coalbrookdale Bridge, 1779 (top
right)
• First all-metal structure
• Cast iron
• Right: Crystal Palace, 1851
(bottom right)
• cast iron and glass
• Eiffel Tower, 1889
• cast iron

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HISTORY

1850 +
• Starting in 1850's, steel
becomes increasingly plentiful
with the development of large
scale steel making methods
such as the Bessemer process.
• After the U.S. Civil War, excess
steel making capacity sets the
stage for the first use of steel in
buildings in this country.
• Home Insurance Company
Building, 1885, William Le Baron
Jenny (right)
• First tall building supported entirely
by a fire-protected metal frame
(cast iron and steel)

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HISTORY

Modern
• Steel is one of three commonly
used noncombustible structural
materials. (Concrete and
masonry are the others.)
• Suitable for construction of
buildings of all sizes, from single
family residences to the tallest
skyscrapers.

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FERROUS METAL- IN
WHICH IRON IS THE
PRINCIPAL ELEMENT.

NON-FERROUS
METAL- CONTAINING
NO, OR VERY LITTLE
IRON.
11 STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION

THE MATERIAL STEEL

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 THE MATERIAL STEEL
Greater proportions of carbon generally increase the hardness and
brittleness of the resulting iron alloy.
• STEEL
malleable alloy or iron and carbon produced by melting and refining pig iron, and/or scrap
steel, graded according o the carbon content; manganese and silicon; iron, ore and limestone;
waste are blended and burned on a moving gate to cause the formation of clinkers which are
called sinter, a high grade blast-furnace charge material. These materials are melted into ingots
place into molds.

• Less than 2% carbon

• Strong in both tension and compression
• Ductile (not prone to sudden failure)

• CAST IRON
• Typically 2% – 4% carbon
• Strong in compression, but less so in tension
• Brittle (prone to sudden failure)

• WROUGHT IRON
• Little or no carbon
• Strong in tension, but weaker in compression
• Malleable (easily shaped) and relatively soft
• Roofing sheets, wire and metal ornaments
 THE MATERIAL STEEL

• Manganese steel
- great resistance to abrasion and finds important use in the cutting of edges of
heavy digging tools.

• Copper
- high resistance to corrosion, used for making sheet steel and metal lath.

• Alloy steel
– Combination of elements with the molten steel.
– Nickel, chromium copper and manganese are used.

• Nickel Steel
– Stronger than carbon steel
– Structural members for buildings
– Chromium is very hard and corrosion resistant

• Stainless Steel
– Chromium or combination of nickel and chromium
– Exterior wall panels, frames for doors, expansion joints, flashings, coping, fascia
and gravels stops
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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

• Weathering Steel
- recently developed grade of steel
- forms its own protection against atmospheric corrosion and requires no painting.
- undergoes a unique color transformation during the weathering process.
- bridges, buildings, and other applications

• Cold-rolled sheets are galvanized/ cast iron

- pig iron to make cast iron, high in tensile but low in compression
- little use in construction
- cheap and easy
- pumps, motors, engines, corrosion resistant pipes

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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

Steel Alloys
• Traditional mild steel
• ASTM A36
• Minimum 36 ksi (36,000 lb per sq. in.)
yield strength
• Contemporary high-strength, low
alloy steels
• ASTM A992: W shapes
• ASTM A572: other shapes
• Produced economically in mini-mills
• Minimum yield strength 50 to 65 ksi
• Use of stronger steel allows
savings in weight and reductions
in the size of structural elements,
reducing overall costs.
ASTM A992 steel columns lay stacked in a fabricator
yard. Note the holes predrilled for connections that will be
completed in the field.
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THE MATERIAL STEEL

More Steel Alloys

• Weathering steel ASTM A588
• Surface rust adheres to base
metal, limiting further rusting
• Mostly used in highway and
bridge structures, eliminating
the need for a protective
coating
• Right: 365-ft span highway
arch bridge made principally of
weathering steel
• Cor-Ten steel (a proprietary
trade name for weathering
steel)
• Stainless steel ASTM A240,
A276
• Added nickel and chromium
• Forms self-protecting oxide
layer that provides long lasting
protection against corrosion

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Mild steel (low carbon steel)

• The commonly used alloy
for structural steel
members
• Not more than 0.3%
carbon
• Small amounts of other
alloys, such as nickel,
chromium, molybdenum,
manganese, vanadium, and
silicon improve strength,
toughness, and other
qualities
• Reasonably strong, highly
ductile, and easily welded
• Equally strong in tension
and compression

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Making Cast Iron

• Iron ore, oxides of iron
extracted from the ground, is
combined with coke (carbon
derived from coal) and
limestone in a large blast
furnace.
• Hot air forced through the
furnace burns the coke.
Chemical reactions with the
combustion products remove
oxygen from the ore, leaving
elemental iron, but with a
relatively high carbon content.
• The limestone combines with
impurities and is drawn off as
waste slag.
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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

Steelmaking
• In a traditional steel mill, iron ore is the raw ingredient. First, it is processed
into molten iron in a blast furnace, followed by conversion to steel in a
second operation.

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Steelmaking: Basic Oxygen Process

• Scrap metal and molten iron are
charged into the furnace.
• Pure oxygen is injected into the
mixture, oxidizing the carbon and
other impurities. Large amounts of
heat are generated—no external
fuel or energy source is required.
• Impurities combine with the flux,
and float on top of the molten
metal.
• The mixture is sampled, and
ingredients and the process are
adjusted as needed.
• Molten steel and slag are separately
poured off. Additional alloying
elements may be added to the steel.

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Steelmaking: Mini-Mill
• In the North America today, most steel is made from
recycled steel scrap in "mini-mills" using electric arc
furnaces. Steel carp is converted directly to new
steel, bypassing the need to make iron from ore.

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Steelmaking: Electric Arc Furnace

• Scrap metal is charged into the
furnace.
• Electrodes are lowered into the
scrap. An electric current flows
through the electrodes creating an
arc that melts the metal. Large
amounts of externally supplied
energy are required.
• Oxygen is injected to oxidize
impurities and enh ance heating.
Flux is added to draw off impurities.
• Once the charge is fully melted,
additional scrap may be added.
• The mixture is sampled, and
ingredients and the process are
adjusted as needed.
• Molten steel and slag are separately
poured off. Additional alloying
elements may be added to the steel.
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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Electric Arc Furnace

• Right: Molten steel being
tapped from an electric
arc furnace into a vessel
called a "ladle"
• Note the geared
mechanism under the
furnace for controlling
furnace tipping.
• The upper ends of two
electrodes are just visible
at the top of the furnace.
• Next, the steel may move
on to secondary
steelmaking steps or
proceed directly to
casting.
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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

Steel Making
• Mini-mills
• Less expensive to build than traditional mills
• Produce higher-quality steel at less cost than
traditional mills
• Use less energy than traditional mills (In a
traditional steel mill, the basic oxygen
furnace does not require an external source
of energy, but the blast furnace does.)
• Recycled content : 90% +
• In North America, virtually all hot-rolled
structural steel shapes are manufactured
from recycled steel in mini-mills.

• Traditional mills
• Recycled content: 25% - 35%
• Primary products are flat-rolled stock,
including steel decking and other sheet
products used in building construction
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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

Steelmaking: Casting

• As the molten steel begins to solidify, it

is cast into a variety of shapes, ranging
from plain rectangles or rounds to
more complex cross sections, such as
beam blanks, that approximate the
shape of finished beam products.

• Right: In the continuous casting

process, casting begins once the outer
shell of the steel mass has solidified,
while the inner portion is still molten.

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Production of Structural Shapes

• Structural shapes are produced in
a rolling mill. Prior to rolling, the
beam blanks are reheated to the
necessary temperature.
• Blanks then pass through a series
of rollers in which they are
progressively deformed into the
desired final shape.

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Production of Rolled
Structural Shapes
• Wide-Flange (W-Shape) :
The most commonly used
shape for beams and
columns; Not an "I-beam"!
• Channels, angles, tees: For
trusses, lighter weight
framing, and other
miscellaneous uses
• American Standard:
Traditional I-beam with a
shape that is less
structurally efficient than a
contemporary wide-flange
of the same weight

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Roll Formed Z-Channels are
commonly used as Framing,
Supports, Reinforcements,
Stiffeners for PVC-Rails, Slides,
Tracks, and many other uses.

They are used in many industries,

such as: Construction, Mezzanines,
Metal Buildings, Garage Doors,
Fences, PVC-Door & Window
Frames, Displays & Store Fixtures,
Tool Boxes, Metal Furniture,
Enclosures, Cabinets, Storage Bins,
Racks, among many other
industries. Z-Bar, Z-Channel, Zee, &
Purlin are all terms that describe the
same type of Profile.
A T-beam (or tee beam), used
in construction, is a load-
bearing structure of reinforced
concrete, wood or metal, with a t-
shaped cross section. The top of the t-
shaped cross section serves as
a flange or compression member in
resisting compressive stresses. The web
(vertical section) of the beam below the
compression flange serves to resist shear
stress and to provide greater separation for
the coupled forces of bending.
The T-beam has a big disadvantage
compared to an I-beam because it has no
bottom flange with which to deal with tensile
forces. One way to make a T-beam more
efficient structurally is to use an inverted T-
beam with a floor slab or bridge deck joining
the tops of the beams. Done properly, the
slab acts as the compression flange.

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Roll Formed Metal Angles are the
most basic of all Roll Formed Profiles.
Tooling required is simple, and
inexpensive to setup. For 90 degree
leg angles, tooling is always existing,
up to 4" O.D. leg height using up to a
3/16" maximum thickness, and up to
a 9" O.D. leg height using a .075"
maximum thickness.
Most Angles have equal legs but we get requests from many customers
for unequal leg angles also called L's. There are Angles with more than a
90 degree bend called Vee's. There are angles with less than a 90
degree bend leaving the legs more open than 90 degrees. A 90 degree
bend is by far the most common for an Angle.
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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

Wide-Flange Shapes
• Generally, taller, more narrow
profiles are best suited for use
as horizontally spanning
elements (beams, girders, etc.)
• Profiles more square in
proportion are better suited
for use as vertical columns.
• Size designations are nominal,
but not necessarily an accurate
indication of actual depth.
• A W14 x 285 is 44" tall!

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Wide-Flange Shapes
• Example designation: W10
x 30
• W: Wide-flange shape
• 10: Nominally 10 inches
deep
• 30: 30 pounds per lineal foot
• By varying roller sizes and
spacings, a variety of shapes
The unshaded portions of the diagrams illustrate how
and weights can be a variety of weights of beams can be rolled from
produced, all nominally 10" the same set of rollers by opening up the space
between the rollers.
in depth:
• W10 x 9: 9.87" x 2.69"
• W10 x 30: 10.47" x 5.81"
• W10 x 33: 9.71" x 9.73"
• W10 x 112: 11.36" x 10.42"

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Other Shape Designations:

• S18 x 70
• American Standard beam
• 18" nominal depth
• 70 pounds per foot
• MC10 x 33.6
• Miscellaneous channel
• 10" nominal depth
• 33.6 pounds per foot
• C6 x 13
• American Standard channel
• 6" nominal depth
• 13 pounds per foot

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Other Shape Designations:

• L4 x 3 x 3/8
• Angle
• 4" x 3" nominal leg lengths
• 3/8" leg thickness
• WT13.5 x 47
• Structural tee cut from a W
shape
• 13.5" nominal depth
• 47 pounds per foot
• (This example shape was
produced by cutting a
W27x94 in half lengthwise.)

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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

By adjusting the chemistry, alloying,

and forming processes of steel, a
multitude of different steel types
with varying physical properties can
be made.
• Example: ASTM A913 steel
• High-strength, low-alloy, steel that has
been modified by thermal processes
after rolling to impart a particularly
desirable combination of strength,
weldability, and toughness
characteristics
• Especially suited for welded, heavy
weight members and for use in
structures in areas of high seismic risk
• Right: Welding two heavy A913 steel
column sections end-to-end

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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

STEEL PIPE
- seamless or welded small
diameter pipe and electrically
welded large diameter pipe.
- forcing a solid hot rod over a
pointed mandrel to form a hollow
tube
- Either hot rolled or cold rolled steel
strip called skelp, can be used to
make resistance-welded pipe or
tubing. Coils of skelp are welded
together end to end, and rolls form
the strip into a continuous
cynlinder.

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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

REINFORCING STEEL BAR

comes in plain or
deformed bars, that is,
bars which have lugs or
deformation rolled on
the surface to provide
anchorage in concrete.

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START WITH NO 2 OR ¼ IN. (DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO GET THE EQUIVALENT IN INCH DIAMETER)

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 MARKINGS TO IDENTIFY STEEL GRADES

GRADE OF STEEL= YIELD STRENGTH ex., 60

grade mark is equal to (60 KSI)
N- BILLET
A- AXIS
R- RAIL
The Combination of concrete and steel bars have shown the following satisfactory
performances:

1. negligible difference in thermal expansion- safer from differential thermal deformation

2. concrete- excellent protective covering to retard steel corrosion.
3. Steel strength decreases to high temperature- concrete covering provides thermal
insulation
4. concrete is weak in tension, steel resist high tensile stresses.
5. Large number of steel bars is effective in minimizing crack width; minimizes cracks
6. Steel is 10 times stronger than concrete in carrying compression load and 100 times
stronger in resisting tensile stresses.

Structurally Steel can be used in two ways:

1. As reinforcement- pre-assembled inside the form followed by pouring of fresh concrete.
2. As stressed steel- heavy tension forces are applied to the steel before the casting of
concrete.

In order to obtain the right size of steel bars, consider the following recommendations:
a. In buying steel bar, it must be based on weight per bar length
b. In ordering steel bars avoid the use of English measure if you don’t want to be cheated.
c. Do not insist asking for a bigger discount because you might get steel bars a millimeter or
much smaller than what you need.
BAR SPACING
1. Min clear distance between the adjacent bars- 1 ½ or 4 cm in columns
2. Beam reinforcement are placed in two or more layers- above layer should be 25 mm
3. Walls and slabs- principal reinforcement shall not be apart three times the wall or slab
thickness not more than 45 centimeters.
4. pre-tensioning steel-
5. Spirals- not exceed 7.5 or less than 2.5 cm, 10mm diameter minimum.
*spiral splices is 48 bar dm minimum but not less than 30 cm or welded
6. Lateral ties- at least no. 3 bars spaced not to exceed 16 times the longitudinal bar
diameter or 48 tie bar diameter or the least dimension of the column.
7. Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall not be placed further apart than 5 times
the slab thickness nor more than 45 cm.
 THE MATERIAL STEEL

Cold-Worked (Cold-Formed)
Steel
• Deforming steel in its cold
state causes realignment of
the steel crystals and increases
its strength.
• Examples:
• Corrugated steel decking, rolled
from steel sheet (right)
• Steel studs and joists (Chapter 12)
• High-strength wire for concrete
prestressing strands (Chapter 13)

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PLATE AND BARS- ASTM A36 FOR BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES

1. BARS -15 cm less in width with 0.51 cm thickness; 15 cm to 20 cm wide by 6 mm thick

2. PLATES- Over 20 cm. wide by 6 mm thick; over 120 cm wide by 4.5mm thick or more.

STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADE

A7- bridges
A373- structural steel for welding
THE ASTM A36- stronger with higher yielding point than ASTM a7; reduced carbon and can
be connected by means of bolts and rivets.
HIGH STRENGTH STEEL- A440, riveted and bolted and not recommended for welding.
ASTM A441- suitable for welding connection; widely used, superior in quality, high resistance
to corrosion and higher strength but lighter in weight.
AND ASTM A242 (greater strength and higher resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
ASTM A141- structural rivets
ASTM A195- high strength structural rivet steel
ASTM A406- high strength structural alloy rivet steel

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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

Hollow Structural Sections (HSS)

• Hollow square, rectangular,
round, and elliptical shapes
• Made by cold- or hot-forming
steel strip (sheet) and welding
longitudinally
• Example designation:
HSS 8 x 8 x ½
• Hollow structural section
• 8" x 8" nominal size
• ½" wall thickness
• HSS shapes are used for
trusses, structurally efficient
column sections, and where
the simple outside profile is
desirable.
• Designated by the prefix TS
followed by the side
dimensions or diameter and
the wall thickness.
 THE MATERIAL STEEL

Open-Web Steel Joists (OWSJ)

• Lightweight trusses, manufactured
in standard configurations
• Made from both hot- and cold-
formed components
• Depths range from 8 in. to 6 ft
• Traditionally spaced 2 to 10 ft on
center; more recently, wider
spacings are being used for greater
economy
• Right: Note the deeper joists for the
two floor levels, which carry greater
loads than the more shallow roof
joists above.

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Open-Web Steel Joists

(OWSJ)
• Designations
• K series: spans up to 60 ft
• LH series: spans up to 96 ft
• DLH: spans up to 144 ft (roofs
only)
• JG: joist girders
• Example 18K3
• 18-in. deep
• K series joist
• Size 3 members (larger
numbers correspond to
heavier members)

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THE CODE ON WEB PLATES PROVIDES THAT:

A minimum thickness of web plate is 10mm for interior and 6

mm for exterior locations. In addition, plate girder web
thickness shall not be less than 1/320 of the unsupported
distance between the flange angles. If full allowance bending
stress in the flange is used, the web plate thickness shall not
be less than 1/162 of the unsupported distance. This
requirement apply to ASTM A36 steel. The intermediate
stiffness that prevent buckling is usually 6cmx6cmx6mm
angles placed in pair at each end of the girder, then at a
distance not to exceed 85 centimeters as first pair of
intermediate stiffness then at 2.25 thereafter.

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 Cover plate
Stiffener plate or angle

Web plate- Axial vertical plate

When a rolled steel section is inadequate to meet the span requirements, a builtup section
plate or box girder is the answer.

Plate girder- a beam made up of steel plates and angles aither riveted or welded together
forming an I-section.
Principles
1. Web plate resist shearing stresses.
2. The flange made up angles cover plates and 1/6 of the web area resist tension and
compression due to bending
3. The stiffness prevent buckling of the web plates.
THE MATERIAL STEEL

Joining Steel Members:

Riveting
• White-hot fastener is
inserted through holes in
members to be fastened.
• Fastener is hammered to
produce a head on the
plain end.
• As the metal cools, it
contracts, and strongly
clamps the steel members.
• Mostly found in historical
structures. Not used in
modern building
construction.

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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

Joining Steel Members: Riveting

• Pitch of the rivets is from center to center
distance between adjacent rivets, whether
they fall on the same or different lines.
• Minimum is 9 cm for a 25 mm dia rivet and
pitch should not be less than 3 times the
diameter of the rivets.
• Too closed to the edge of the plate has the
tendency to tear the adjacent thin metal.
• Stitch rivets- angles act as one unit by the
use of rivets connecting the members
placed at intervals between the ends of
the members.
 THE MATERIAL STEEL

Joining Steel Members: Bolting

Bolts are called threaded fasteners
• Carbon steel bolts
• Relatively low strength
• Limited use; for fastening light framing
elements or temporary connections
• Also called common, or unfinished bolts
• High-strength bolts
• Stronger than common bolts
• ASTM A325
• Used for fastening primary structural
members

Friction type connection- tensile stresses

are set up in the shank of the bolts. The
frictions between the connecting plates
resist the tension and compression load.

Bearing Type connection- ends of the

plates are in bearing against rivets, the
shank of the rivets resist the shear.
THE MATERIAL STEEL

Joining Steel Members: Bolting

• Bearing-type connection (left)
• Body of bolt resists movement
between connected members by
bearing directly against sides of bolt
holes.
• Bolt is stressed in shear.
• Connection will experience some
slippage before reaching full
strength.
• Slip-critical connection (right)
• Bolt is tensioned to such an extent
that movement between members is
resisted by friction between the
adjoining "faying" surfaces of the
members themselves.
• Bolt is stressed in tension.
• Under normal loads, no slippage
occurs.

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Joining Steel Members:

Slip-Critical Connections
• Required for joints that
experience load reversals,
for joints with oversize or
slotted holes, and where
minor slippage would be
detrimental to the
structure (such as column-
to-column splices in very
tall buildings).

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Joining Steel Members: In

slip-critical connections,
adequate bolt tension must
be assured.
• Turn-of-nut method: Nut is
tightened some additional
fraction of a turn after
achieving a snug condition.
Bolt tension is verified by
checking selected fastener
tightness with a torque
wrench.
• Load indicator washers
(right): When bolt is
adequately tightened,
protrusions on the washer
are flattened. Bolt tension is
verified by inserting a gauge
between bolt head and
washer.
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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Joining Steel Members: Slip-

Critical Connections
• Tension control bolt (right):
When bolt is adequately
tightened, the splined end
snaps off. Bolt tension is
verified by visually
inspecting for splines.
• An additional advantage of
this bolt type is that a
second worker is not
required to hold the bolt
head on the opposite side
of the connection during
tightening.

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THE MATERIAL STEEL

Joining Steel Members:

Welding
• The joining surfaces of
steel members are
heated to a molten state,
additional molten metal
is added, and the
members are fully fused.
• After welding is
complete, two members
can be joined as if they
are one monolithic
element.

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 THE MATERIAL STEEL

Joining Steel Members:

Welding
• Fillet welds are relatively easy
to make, as little preparation
of the joint is required.
• Groove welds require
properly shaped and spaced
joints.
• Puddle welds are used to
fasten metal decking to
structural steel members.
• Welds that are critical to the
stability of the structure can
be inspected using a variety
of techniques to ensure their
soundness and freedom from
hidden flaws.
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11 STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION

DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

Example Beam-To-Column Connection:

Framed Shear Connection
• Framed Connection: Angles, plates, or
tees connect web of beam to side of
column (right)
• Angles are bolted to beam in the
fabricator's shop.
• Beam/angle assembly is bolted to the
column in the field.

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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

• Shear Connection: Transfers

gravity loads from beam to
columns. But the connection is
not sufficiently rigid to transfer
bending forces between the
two members.
• In an engineering analysis, this
connection is modeled as if it is
free to rotate. In fact, the
connection is sufficiently
flexible to allow small rotations
between the beam and column
such that bending forces in the
beam do not impart bending
forces into the column.
• Also called an AISC Simple
Connection.
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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

• This pair of lightweight

beam-column shear
connections rely on shear
tabs welded to the column
in the fabricator's shop
and bolted to the beam
webs in the field.
• The beams are purposely
cut slightly short to make
it easier to swing them
into position between the
columns and to allow for
minor deviations in
column locations.

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Are used without stiffeners for beam and smaller reactions.
DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

Example Beam-To-Column:
Moment Connection
• Web of beam is connected to
column with bolted angles.
• Top and bottom flanges of
beam are field-welded to
column with full penetration
welds.
• Column is reinforced with
plates to carry bending forces
from beam flanges into
column.
• This connection transfers
gravity loads and bending
forces between the members.
• Beam is restrained from even
small rotations, termed AISC
Fully Restrained.
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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

• The "dog bone" cut in the

beam creates a zone of
weakness away from the
connection itself.
• Under extreme stress during a
seismic event, this weakened
area of the beam will deform
plastically, protecting the
welded joint, which is more
brittle, from failure.
• Lower photograph: A similar
connection just erected. A
single bolt holds the beam
temporarily in place. The top
and bottom flanges will be
welded to the column. In lieu
of bolted angles as above, the
beam web is connected with a
welded shear tab.
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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

• A pair of beam-column
moment connections.
Note the full penetration
welds at the top and
bottom flanges, and the
reinforcing plates in the
column.

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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

• Second view of the

connection in the previous
slide.
• This connection results in a
continuous beam
condition that can fully
transmit bending forces
through the column,
allowing the beam to
cantilever on the right.
(The posts at the corner
are temporary supports.)

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 DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

More Beam Connections

• When connecting a beam to the
column web, access to the
connection is more constrained
than when connecting to column
flanges.
• Top: A seated connection relies
on a seat angle below the beam
and stabilizing angle at top. The
angle connections are not stiff
enough to transfer bending
forces, and this is a shear
connection.
• Bottom: Moment connection
with bolted web and welded
flanges. The shear tab is deep
enough to position the bolts
clear of the column flanges for
easy access.
DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

More Beam Connections

• An end plate connection. The
plate is welded to the beam
in the shop and bolted to the
column in the field.
• This connection is
sufficiently rigid to transfer
some (but not all) bending
forces between the beam
and column and is termed
semi-rigid or AISC Partially-
Restrained.

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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

More Beam Connections

• Framed beam-girder
connection
• Note the coping of the upper
flanges of the beams so that
the tops of the beams can be
made level with the top of
the girder.

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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

• A bolted column splice with

plates shop-welded to the
ends of both column
sections

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 DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

More Column Connections

• Left: A welded column splice.
The bolted connector plate holds
the columns in alignment prior
to welding. Later, the column
flanges are welded with partial
penetration welds. The hole in
the plate provides an
attachment point for the lifting
line during erection.
• Right: A butt plate or bearing
plate is inserted in the
connection where inside
dimensions of the column
sections differ. The plate is thick
enough to transfer the loads
from the upper column section
to the lower one.

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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

Column Connections
• Left: A bolted column-
column connection, or
splice. Column connections
are frequently located at
roughly waist height, to
avoid interference with
beam-column connections
and so that connections are
conveniently accessible to
workers standing on the
floor deck.
• Right: Where outer
dimensions of connected
column sections vary, shim
or filler plates are inserted in
the connection to make up
the difference.

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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

Stabilizing the Building

Frame
• The rectangular geometry
of the building frame must
be made stable against
lateral forces by one of
three methods:
-diagonal bracing
-moment-resisting frame
-and shear walls

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 DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

Stabilizing the Building Frame:

Diagonal Bracing
• Diagonal bracing creates stable,
triangular geometry within the
frame.
• A diagonally braced frame can be
constructed with shear
connections that are free to rotate.
• Eccentric bracing, a variation on
diagonal bracing, allows a plastic
hinge condition to develop during
extreme seismic events, absorbing
the dynamic energy of the
earthquake.

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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

Stabilizing the Building

Frame: Moment-Resisting
Frame
• Some or all of the beam-
column connections are
moment connections
capable of resisting
rotations between the
members, making the frame
stable.

Moment-Resisting Frame

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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

Stabilizing the Building

Frame: Shear Walls
• Shear walls, most often
made of concrete, can
stabilize a structural frame
constructed with shear
connections that are free to
rotate.
• Shear walls in tall buildings
sometimes also incorporate
heavy steel plate.
• The different stabilizing
methods are frequently
used in combination in a Shear Walls
single structure.

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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

Stabilizing the Building Frame

• Inverted vee diagonal
bracing in a steel building
frame.
• These buckling-resistant
braces are specially
designed to deform
plastically in a controlled
manner during an extreme
seismic event and protect
the building from the
energy of the earthquake.
• The beam-to-column
connections are also
moment connections.

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DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

Stabilizing the Building Frame

• The beginnings of a concrete core tower that will contain vertical building services
and that will also act as shear walls, stabilizing the building frame.
• Note the large quantities of steel reinforcing. Stresses from lateral forces are
greatest at the base of the stabilizing system and decrease toward the top.
• To judge scale, note the broom and shovel leaning at the base of the right wall.

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11 STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION

THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

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 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Steel Framing Plan

• Shows sizes and locations of
structural steel members
(dimensions have been omitted
from the plan at right)

• The W30 girder-column

connection is a beam to column
flange connection.

• The W27 beam-column

connection is beam to column
web connection.

• The W18 to W30 connection is a

coped beam-girder connection.

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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

The Fabricator
• The steel
fabricator is
responsible for
providing each
needed piece of
structural steel to
the construction
site.
• Traditionally, the
fabricator prepares
shop drawings
showing the
dimensions of each
piece of steel
required for the
job.
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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

• The shop drawings

are reviewed by
the architect and
structural engineer
before the
fabricator begins
work.
• The fabricator
frequently is also
responsible for
determining the
details of the steel
connections
themselves, based
on more general
connection load
requirements
provided by the
structural engineer.

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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

The Fabricator
• More recently, with building
information modeling (BIM)
systems, steel fabrication
information and details may
be developed by the
structural engineer in the
building model as an
alternative to relying on
fabricator shop drawings.

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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

The Fabricator
• In the fabricator's shop, each
piece of steel is cut to
length, coped, drilled,
punched, welded, shaped
and provided with tabs,
angles, plates and other
accessories as indicated on
the shop drawings.
• Fabrication operations are
performed by a combination
of automated equipment
and skilled workers.

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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

The Fabricator
• Fabricated steel members
are stacked in the
fabricator's yard using an
overhead crane, awaiting
transportation to the
construction site.
• Note the identifying labels
on each piece of steel.

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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

The Fabricator
• Steel members are
individually labeled to
correspond to
information on the
erection drawings so that
each piece can be
assembled in the proper
location once delivered
to the construction site.

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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

The Erector
• The erector is responsible
for erection of steel once
delivered to the
construction site.
• The erector may or may
not be the same entity as
the fabricator.
• The erector's workers are
called ironworkers.

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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

The Erector
• As the frame is erected, temporary cables with turnbuckles are used to
plumb up (make vertical) the frame.

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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Floor and Roof Decking

• Corrugated steel decking
laid over the steel
framing is the most
common floor and roof
decking material.
• The decking is puddle
welded to the framing
members below.

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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Floor and Roof Decking

• Steel decking comes in a
variety of profiles and depths
to suit different load and
span conditions.
• Top: Relatively shallow roof
decking.
• Second from bottom:
Composite floor decking with
deformations that allow a
structural bond to develop
between the metal deck and
the concrete poured over it,
to increase the strength of
the deck/concrete floor
assembly.

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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Floor and Roof Decking

• Shear studs may be
welded to tops of beams,
projecting through the
metal decking. Once
concrete is poured, the
beams and concrete act
together structurally as
another form of
composite construction.

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 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Floor and Roof Decking

• Concrete is placed over
the metal decking to
complete the structural
floor or roof deck.
• A grid of welded wire
reinforcing within the
concrete increases the
floor's resistance to
cracking.

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 DETAILS OF STEEL FRAMING

• The beam-column
connection is a shear
connection relying on a
shear tab welded to the
column in the fabricator's
shop and bolted to the
beam web in the field.
• The HSS column splice
relies on a lightweight
plate, shop-welded to the
lower column section and
field-welded to the upper
section.
• Just to the right of the
column is a welded OWSJ-
beam connection with a
light reinforcing plate
underneath the beam
flange.
 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Floor and Roof Decking

• Other materials, such as the precast concrete hollow core planks shown
here, can also be used to create the floor and roof decks.

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Welding 10-12mm thick to the flange of the column.
*12mm
increment in
thickness
11 STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION

FIREPROOFING OF
STEEL FRAMING

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 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Steel Strength and

Temperature
• Above roughly 500 or
600 degrees F, steel
rapidly looses
strength.

• Fireproofing acts as
insulation, protecting
steel from the heat of
fire and the survival
of the building
structure.

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 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Fireproofing materials
• Concrete
• Plaster
• Gypsum wallboard
• Spray-applied insulation
• Loose insulation within sheet
metal column cover
• Water-filled columns (e.g., U.S.
Steel Building, Pittsburgh)
• Not shown:
• Insulation blankets
• Intumescent Coatings: Thin,
paint-like coatings that
expand to create a thicker,
insulating layer when
exposed to the heat of fire
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 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Spray-Applied Fire-Resistive
Material (SFRM)
• The most common
fireproofing
• The level of protection
required for various parts of
the structure is determined
by the building code and
relates to the size of the
building and its occupancies.
• To achieve an equal level of
protection, lighter steel
members require more
insulation than heavier
members, since lighter
member heat up more
quickly.
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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Spray-Applied Fire-Resistive Material (SFRM)

• Spray-applied fireproofing has been applied to the first two levels of
framing in this steel high rise structure.

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 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

• Cross-bracing, which
resists wind and
earthquake—but not
gravity—loads, is not
normally required to
be fire-protected.

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12 LIGHT GAUGE STEEL CONSTRUCTION

THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT

GAUGE STEEL
CONSTRUCTION

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THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Light Gauge Steel Framing Members

• Steel components are cold-rolled from steel sheet.
• Cold-forming increases metal strength.
• Members are essentially noncombustible equivalents of wood light
frame construction.

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 THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION
C-Studs and Joists
• Used as vertical studs, and
horizontal joists, rafters, and
headers, ceiling joist
• Standards sizes
• Depth 1-5/8 to 12 in.
• Width 1-1/4 to 2-1/2 in.
• Metal thickness 18 to 97 mils (0.018 to
0.097 in.)
• Example designation: 600S162-54
• 600: 6.00 inches deep
• S: Stud or joist
• 162: 1.625 (1-5/8) inches wide
• 54: 54 mils (.054 inches) metal
thickness

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 THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Metal Tracks
• Used at top and bottom of
wall framing and at ends of
floor framing, to hold studs
or joists
• Analogous to wall plates
and rim joists in light wood
frame construction
• Standard sizes
• Depth to match studs or joists
• Width 1-1/4 to 2 in.
• Example designation:
600T125-33
• 6.00 inches deep
• Track
• 1.25 in. wide
• 33 mils metal thickness
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 THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Standard Channels

• Unsymmetrical balance
consisting of 2 flanges on one
side. Requires support to
prevent tendency to buckle.

• Used for bridging, blocking,

and other reinforcing and
bracing
• Also called cold-formed
channels
• Standard sizes
• Depth ¾ to 2-1/2 in.
• Width ½ in.
• The channel section is
identified as C15 x20 which
means a depth of 20 and
weighs 15 kgs per meter length

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THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Furring
• Used for bridging, backing,
furring
• Also called hat channels
• Standard sizes
• Depth 7/8 or 1-1/2 in.
• Width 1¼ in. at raised surface,
2½ in. at base
• Example designation:
087F125-30
• 0.875 in. deep
• Furring channel
• 1.25 inches wide at raised
surface
• 30 mils metal thickness

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THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

L-Headers
• Used for simplified header
construction over openings
in loadbearing walls
• Break-formed angles (sheet
metal bent in fabricator's
shop to the specified size)
• Standard sizes
• Long leg 6 to 10 in.
• Short leg 1½ in.
• Example designation:
2-800L150-43
Section View
• 2 (doubled) angles required
• 8.00 in. long leg length
• L-Header
• 1.5 in. short leg length
• 43 mils metal thickness
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 THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Framing Accessories
• Various sheet metal clips,
stiffeners, bracing, and hangers
are used to make connections and
reinforce framing.

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THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Special Products
• Many manufacturers offer
proprietary members that
offer various performance
advantages or efficiencies.
• Example right: The heavy
dimpling or extra
corrugation result in
framing members that are
stiffer than their
conventional counterparts
of the same metal
thickness.

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 THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Special Products
• Slip track: A top track with extra
deep legs and slotted holes
• Allows fastening of
nonloadbearing studs to track
while permitting deflection in
the track
• Studs are intentionally cut short
so that a deflection gap remains.
• Deflection in the slab above does
not impart unintended loads into
the wall framing.

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 THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Special Products
• A jamb-stud, a single, deeper
framing member designed to
replace two conventional studs
at either side of a framed rough
opening

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THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Sheet Metal Thickness

Minimum thickness of steel sheet
• Thicker members are
stronger and stiffer, but
also heavier and more Gauge Loadbearing framing Nonloadbearing framing

expensive. 12 0.097 in. (2.46 mm)

• Thickness is traditionally
expressed as metal gauge 14 0.068 in. (1.73 mm)
(or gage), with lower
numbers corresponding 16 0.054 in. (1.37 mm) 0.054 in. (1.37 mm)
to thicker metal.
• Translation of gauge 18 0.043 in. (1.09 mm) 0.043 in. (1.09 mm)

numbers to metal
thickness is not always 20 0.033 in. (0.84 mm) 0.030 in. (0.75 mm)

consistent.
22 0.027 in. (0.69 mm)
• Contemporary ASTM
standards specify metal 25 0.018 in. (0.45 mm)
thickness in decimal
inches.

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THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Cutting Light Gauge Sheet Metal

• Tin snips (aviator's snips): quiet, clean, slower than power
methods
• Power shears
• Power saw with abrasive or carbide-toothed blade
• Torch cutting

Fundamentals of Building Construction,

Materials & Methods, 5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Fastening Light Gauge Sheet

Metal
• Self-drilling, self-tapping
screws are most common.
(top)
• Crimping tools mutually
deform parts to be joined.
(middle)
• Nail-like pins are power-
driven. (bottom)

Fundamentals of Building Construction,

Materials & Methods, 5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
 THE CONCEPT OF LIGHT Gauge STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Fastening Light Gauge Sheet Metal

• Welded joints can achieve higher
strengths but are more labor
intensive to make than
mechanically fastened joints.
• Welding is best suited to thicker
sheets that are less susceptible to
melt-through (burn through) than
thinner sheets.
• Top: Plug welds
• Middle: Slot welds
• Bottom: Flare vee weld

Fundamentals of Building Construction,

Materials & Methods, 5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
12 LIGHT GAUGE STEEL CONSTRUCTION

FRAMING
PROCEDURES

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods, 5th Edition

Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
FRAMING PROCEDURES

Framing
• Framing methods parallel wood
light frame platform
construction.
• Steel joists spaced from 12 to
24 in. o.c. are framed into
tracks or channels.
• Web stiffeners or reinforcing
are inserted where
concentrated loads might cause
joist webs to buckle.
• Construction panels are
fastened with mastic adhesive
and screws.

Fundamentals of Building Construction,

Materials & Methods, 5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods,
5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods,
5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
FRAMING PROCEDURES

Framing
• Heavier beam equivalents, such
as the ridge beam in the top
illustration, can be constructed
by nesting standard joists.
• Simple angles or end clips
facilitate joining of
perpendicular members.

Fundamentals of Building Construction,

Materials & Methods, 5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
FRAMING PROCEDURES

Framing
• Joist hangers, gusset plates,
and folded track ends are other
connection methods.

Fundamentals of Building Construction,

Materials & Methods, 5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
FRAMING PROCEDURES

Framing
• Window header connection to
supporting studs

Fundamentals of Building Construction,

Materials & Methods, 5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
FRAMING PROCEDURES

Bracing
• Slender steel members require bracing at regularly spaced intervals
to reduce the tendency to buckle.

Fundamentals of Building Construction,

Materials & Methods, 5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
LIGHT GAUGE STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Specifying Light Gauge Steel

Framing
• Division 5 Metals,
Section 05 40 00—Cold-Formed
Metal Framing
• Structural, loadbearing framing
• Exterior wall framing (subject to
wind loads)
• Division 9 Finishes
Section 09 22 16—Non-
Structural Metal Framing
• Interior nonloadbearing framing

Fundamentals of Building Construction,

Materials & Methods, 5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
LIGHT GAUGE STEEL CONSTRUCTION

Light Gauge Steel Compared to

Light Wood Framing
• Advantages
• Like wood light framing: versatile,
flexible, simple to construct
• Noncombustible and immune to
insect attack
• Dimensionally stable, with
consistent material properties
• Lighter weight
• Disadvantages
• Members require more frequent
bracing
• Readily conducts heat and requires
extra attention to eliminating
thermal bridging effects
• Susceptible to corrosion

Fundamentals of Building Construction,

Materials & Methods, 5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
 3 CLASSES OF WELDING
•GAS WELDING- utilizing the heat produced by the
combustion of a oxygen and a fuel gas such as
acetylene

•ARC WELDING- between an electrode and the base

metal

•RESISTANCE WELDING- utilizing the heat generated

by resistance to the passage of electric current.

Fundamentals of Building Construction, Materials & Methods,

5th Edition
Copyright © 2009 J. Iano. All rights reserved.
1. A METHOD OF ARC
WELDING
 SINGLE BEVEL WELD-
RESISTANCE WELDING BEVELED FROM ONE SIDE

DOUBLE BEVEL WELD-

NEVE;ED FROM BOTH
SIDES

SINGLE VEE WELD-

BEVELED FROM THE SAME
SIDE

DOUBLE-VEE WELD-
BEVELED FROM BOTH
SIDES