TRANSDUCERS

Classification of transducers :
Advantages of Electrical Transducer
The main advantages of electrical transducer (conversion of physical quantity into electrical quantities) are as follows:
Electrical amplification and attenuation can be easily done.
Mass-inertia effects are minimized.
Effects of friction are minimized.
The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing
medium.
The output can be modified to meet the requirements of the indicating or controlling
units. The signal magnitude can be related in terms of the voltage current. (The analog
signal information can be converted in to pulse or frequency information. Since output
can be modified, modulated or amplified at will, the output signal can be easily used for
recording on any suitable multichannel recording device.)
The signal can be conditioned or mixed to obtain any combination with outputs of
similar transducers or control signals.
The electrical or electronic system can be controlled with a very small power level.
The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the purpose of
measurement.
 Measurement of Displacement
Resistive Transducer:
The change in the value of the resistance with a change in the length of the conductor
can be used to measure displacement.

Strain gauges work on the principle that the resistance of a conductor or semiconductor
changes when strained. This can be used for the measurement of displacement, force
and pressure.

The resistivity of materials changes with changes in temperature. This property can be
used for the measurement of temperature.
 Measurement of Displacement
Resistive Transducer: resistive transducer works on the principle that, the resistance of the element is
directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor
R = ρl/A
The change in the value of resistance with a change in the length of the conductor can be used to measure the
Displacement

The change in the resistance is measured by the AC or DC measuring devices

Resistive transducer is used for measuring the physical quantities like temperature, displacement, vibration etc…
• Some potentiometers use the combination of translational as well as rotational
are called helipots
• Advantage of Potentiometers
• They are inexpensive.
• Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the
requirements are not particularly severe.
• They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of
displacement.
• Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide sufficient output to
allow control operations.
• Disadvantages of Potentiometers
• When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is required to move
the sliding contacts.
• The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned and generate
noise.
Measurement of Displacement
• Inductive Transducer Definition may be either of the self generating
or the passive type.
• The self generating type utilises the basic electrical generator
principle, i.e. a motion between a conductor and magnetic
field induces a voltage in the conductor (generator action).
• This relative motion between the field and the conductor is supplied
by changes in the measured.
• An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that converts
physical motion (position change) into a change in inductance.
• Transducers of the variable inductance type work upon one of the
following principles.
• Variation of self inductance
• Variation of mutual inductance
• Inductive Transducer Definition are mainly used for the measurement of
displacement. The displacement to be measured is arranged to cause
variation in any of three variables
• Number of turns
• Geometric configuration
• Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits
 Measurement of Displacement
• Inductive Transducer
 Measurement of Displacement
• Inductive Transducer

L is proportional to 1/lg (i.e when the target is near the core, the length is small and therefore the self inductance is large)
Capacitive Transducer
• A capacitive transducer has a static plate and a deflected flexible diaphragm with a
dielectric in between. When a force is exerted to the outer side of the diaphragm the
distance between the diaphragm and the static plate changes. This produces a capacitance
which is measured using an alternating current bridge or a tank circuit.
• A tank circuit is more preferred because it produces a change in frequency according to the
change in capacitance. This value of frequency will be corresponding to the displacement or
force given to the input.
Principle of Operation
The equations below express the capacitance between the plates of a capacitor

Where A – overlapping area of plates in m2

d – the distance between two plates in meter
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m
εr – relative permittivity
ε0 – the permittivity of free space

The capacitive transducer is mainly used for measurement of linear displacement. The capacitive transducer
uses the following three effects.
1. Variation in capacitance of transducer is because of the overlapping of capacitor plates.
2. The change in capacitance is because of the change in distances between the plates.
3. The capacitance changes because of dielectric constant.
• The following methods are used for measuring the displacement.
• 1) A transducer using the change in the Area of Plates – The equation below
shows that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates.
The capacitance changes correspondingly with the change in the position of the
plates.
• The capacitive transducers are used for measuring the large displacement
approximately from 1mm to several cms. The area of the capacitive
transducer changes linearly with the capacitance and the displacement.
The capacitance of the parallel plates is given as

where x – the length of overlapping part of plates

ω – the width of overlapping part of plates.
• The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the angular displacement. It is
measured by the movable plates shown below. One of the plates of the
transducer is fixed, and the other is movable
• The angular movement changes the capacitance of the transducers. The
capacitance between them is maximum when these plates overlap each other.
The maximum value of capacitance is expressed as

• The capacitance at angle θ is given expressed as

• The 180° is the maximum value of the angular displacement of the capacitor.
• 2. The transducer using the change in distance between the plates – The
capacitance of the transducer is inversely proportional to the distance between
the plates. The one plate of the transducer is fixed, and the other is movable.
The displacement which is to be measured links to the movable plates.
• The capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance because of which the
capacitor shows the nonlinear response. Such type of transducer is used for
measuring the small displacement.
• Advantage of Capacitive Transducer
• It requires an external force for operation and hence very useful for small systems.
• The capacitive transducer is very sensitive.
• It gives good frequency response because of which it is used for the dynamic study.
• The transducer has high input impedance hence they have a small loading effect.
• It requires small output power for operation.

• Disadvantages of capacitive Transducer

• The metallic parts of the transducers require insulation.
• The frame of the capacitor requires earthing for reducing the effect of the stray
magnetic field.
• Sometimes the transducer shows the nonlinear behaviours because of the edge effect
which is controlled by using the guard ring.
• The cable connecting across the transducer causes an error.
• Uses of Capacitive Transducer

• The capacitive transducer uses for measurement of both the linear and angular
displacement. It is extremely sensitive and used for the measurement of very small
distance.
• It is used for the measurement of the force and pressures. The force or pressure,
which is to be measured is first converted into a displacement, and then the
displacement changes the capacitances of the transducer.
• It is used as a pressure transducer in some cases, where the dielectric constant of the
transducer changes with the pressure.
• The humidity in gases is measured through the capacitive transducer.
• The transducer uses the mechanical modifier for measuring the volume, density,
weight etc.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)
• LVDT is an acronym for Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is a common type of electromechanical
transducer that can convert the rectilinear motion of an object to which it is coupled mechanically into a
corresponding electrical signal.
• The differential transformer is a passive inductive transformer. It is also known as a Linear Variable Differential
Transducer (LVDT).
• The transformer consists of a single primary winding P1 and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a
hollow cylindrical former. The secondary windings have an equal number of turns and are identically placed on
either side of the primary windings. The primary winding is connected to an ac source.
• An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefore affects the magnetic coupling
between the primary and the two secondaries.
• The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft iron core. (In practice, the core is
made up of a nickel-iron alloy which is slotted longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses.)
• When the core is in its normal (null) position, equal voltages are induced in the two secondary windings. The
frequency of the ac applied to the primary winding ranges from 50 Hz to 20 kHz.

• The output voltage of the secondary windings S1 is Es1 and that of secondary winding S2 is Es2.
• In order to convert the output from S1 to S2 into a single voltage signal, the two secondaries S1 and S2 are
connected in series opposition, as shown in Fig. 13.20. Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the
difference of the two voltages. Therefore the differential output voltage Eo=Es1~Es2.
• Linear Variable Differential Transducer are available with ranges as low as ± 0.05 in. to as high as ± 25
in. and are sensitive enough to be used to measure displacements of well below 0.001 in. They can be
obtained for operation at temperatures as low as — 265°C and as high as + 600°C

• Advantages
• Linearity: The output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for displacements upto 5 mm (a
linearity of 0.05% is available in commercial LVDTs).
• High output: It gives a high output (therefore there is frequently no need for intermediate
amplification devices).
• High sensitivity: The transducer possesses a sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm.
• Ruggedness: These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of vibration and shock.
• Low power consumption: Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W of power

• Disadvantages
• Large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.
• They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields (but shielding is possible).
• The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically by the applied
voltage.
• Temperature also affects the transducer.
Example :
Applications of LVDT :
 Strain Gauge
• The Strain Gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation in electrical resistance in wires
to sense the strain produced by a force on the wires.
• Since strain can be measured more easily by using variable resistance transducers, it is a common practice to
measure strain instead of stress, to serve as an index of pressure. Such transducers are popularly known as
strain gauges.
• A quarter bridge output corresponding to the application of a force is shown below. Initially, the circuit will be
balanced without the application of any force. When a downward force is applied, the length of the strain gauge
increases and thus a change in resistance occurs. Thus an output is produced in the bridge corresponding to the
strain.
 Types of strain gauges
• Wire strain gauges
• Foil strain gauges
• Semiconductor strain gauges

• Resistance Wire Gauge

• Resistance wire gauges are used in two basic forms, the unbonded type, and
the bonded type.
• 1. Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge
• 2. Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauges
• 1.Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge
• An unbonded strain gauge consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulating medium, such as air.
The diameter of the wire used is about 25 μm. The wires are kept under tension so that there is no sag and no
free vibration. Unbonded Strain Gauge Derivation are usually connected in a bridge circuit. The bridge is
balanced with no load applied as shown in Fig. 13.3.
• When an external load is applied, the resistance of the Strain Gauge Derivation changes, causing an unbalance
of the bridge circuit resulting in an output voltage. This voltage is proportional to the strain. A displacement of
the order of 50μm can be detected with these strain gauges.
 Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauges
• A metallic bonded Strain Gauge Derivation is shown in Fig. 13.4.
• A fine wire element about 25 μm (0.025 in.) or less in diameter is looped back and forth on a carrier (base) or
mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the member undergoing stress. The grid of fine wire is cemented
on a carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper, bakelite, or teflon.
• The wire is covered on the top with a thin material, so that it is not damaged mechanically. The spreading of
the wire permits uniform distribution of stress. The carrier is then bonded or cemented to the member being
studied. This permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to wire.
• A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional
area. The combined effect is an increase in resistance

• where
• ρ = the specific resistance of the material in Ωm.
• l = the length of the conductor in m
• A = the area of the conductor in m2
 Temperature Transducers
(Measurement of Temperature)
1) Resistance Thermometer
2) Thermistor
3) Thermocouple
 1) Resistance Thermometer Transducer
• The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This property is utilised for the
measurement of temperature.
• The Resistance Thermometer Transducer is an instrument used to measure electrical resistance in terms of
temperature, i.e. it uses the change in the electrical resistance of the conductor to determine the
temperature
• The main part of a resistance thermometer is its
sensing element. The characteristics of the sensing
element determines the sensitivity and operating
temperature range of the instrument.

• Figure 13.11(a) shows an industrial platinum resistance

thermometer. The changes in resistance caused by
changes in temperature are detected by a Wheatstone
bridge, as shown in Fig. 13.11(b). Hence, the
temperature sensing element, which may be nickel,
copper or platinum contained in a bulb or well, along
with the balancing bridge, form the essential
components of a temperature measuring system based
upon this principle.
• Advantages of Resistance Thermometer Bridge Circuit
• The measurement of temperature by the electrical resistance method has the following advantages and
characteristics.
• The measurement is very accurate.
• Indicators, recorders and controllers can also be operated.
• More than one resistance element can be clubbed to the same indicating/ recording instrument.
• The temperature resistance element can be easily installed and replaced.
• The accuracy of the measuring circuit can be easily checked by substituting a standard resistor for the resistive
element.
• Resistive elements can be used to measure differential temperature.
• Resistance thermometer have a wide working range without loss of accuracy, and can be used for temperature
ranges (-200°C-650°C)
• They are best suited for remote sensing and indication.
• The response time of the resistive element is 2-10 s.
• The error of the resistive element is in the range of ± 0.25% of the scale
• The size of the resistive element may be about 6-12 mm in diameter.
• No necessity of temperature compensation.
• Extremely accurate temperature sensing.
• Performance stability over longer periods of time
• Limitations of Resistance Thermometer Bridge Circuit
• High cost
• Need for bridge and power source
• Possibility of self heating.
 2) Thermistor
• The electrical resistance of most materials changes with temperature.
• By selecting materials that are very temperature sensitive, devices that are useful in temperature control circuits
and for temperature measurements can be made.
• Thermistor (THERMally sensitive resISTOR) are non-metallic resistors (semiconductor material), made by sintering
mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.

• Thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) (Shown in fig. 13.12), i.e. resistance decreases as
temperature rises.
• In some cases, the resistance of thermistors at room temperature may decrease by 5% for each 1°C rise in
temperature. This high sensitivity to temperature changes makes the thermistor extremely useful for precision
temperature measurements, control and compensation.
• Disc thermistors about 10 mm in diameter, either self supporting or mounted on a small
plate, are mainly used for temperature control. These thermistors are made by pressing
thermistors material under several tons of pressure in a round die to produce flat pieces
1.25 — 25 mm in diameter and 0.25 — 0.75 mm thick, having resistance values of 1 Ω to 1
MΩ. These are sintered and coated with silver on two flat surfaces.

• Washer thermistors are made like disc thermistors, except that a hole is formed in the
centre in order to make them suitable for mounting on a bolt. Rod thermistors are extruded
through dies to make long cylindrical units of 1.25, 2.75, and 4.25 mm in diameter and 12.5
— 50 min long. Leads are attached to the end of the rods. Their resistance usually varies
from 1 — 50 Ω
• The advantage of rod thermistors over other configurations is the ability to produce high resistance
units with moderately high power handling capability.
• A thermistor in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge provides precise temperature information.
Accuracy is limited, in most applications, only by the readout devices.
• Thermistors are non-linear devices over a temperature range, although now units with better than
0.2% linearity over the 0-100°C temperature range are available. The typical sensitivity of a
thermistor is approximately 3 mV/°C at 200°C.
• Advantages of Thermistor
• Small size and low cost.
• Fast response over narrow temperature range.
• Good sensitivity in the NTC region.
• Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence of resistance on absolute
temperature.
• Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due to large Rth (resistance).
• Limitations of Thermistor
• Non-linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics.
• Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
• Very low excitation current to avoid self-heating.
• Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc. due to high resistance.
 Thermocouple
• Thermocouple – One of the most commonly used methods of measurement of
moderately high temperature is the thermocouple effect. When a pair of wires
made up of different metals is joined together at one end, a temperature
difference between the two ends of the wire produces a voltage between the
two wires as illustrated in Fig.13.41
• The thermpcouple (TC) is a temperature transducer that develops an emf that is a function of
the temperature difference between its hot and cold junctions.
• A Thermocouple Circuit may be regarded as a thermometer based on thermo-emf and works
on the principle that the potential between two dissimilar metals or metal alloys is a function
of temperature.
• Type ‘T’ Thermocouple shown in Fig. 13.44, uses copper and constantan.

• Copper used, is an element and constantan used is an alloy of nickel and copper. The copper
side is positive and constantan side is negative. Assuming copper wires used to connect the
Thermocouple Circuit to the next stage (circuit), a second Copper-Constantan junction is
(formed) produced. This junction is called as the reference junction. It generates a Seebeck
voltage that opposes the voltage generated by the sensing junction.
• If both junctions are at the same temperature, the output voltage Vout will be zero. If the
sensing junction is at a higher temperature, Vout will be proportional to the difference
between the two junction temperature.
• The temperature cannot be derived directly from the output voltage alone. It is subjected to
an error caused by the voltage produced by the reference junction.
• This can be overcome by placing the reference junction in an ice bath to keep it at a known
temperature. This process is called as cold junction compensation as shown in Fig.13.45(a).
The reference voltage is maintained at 0 °C.
 Thermocouple
• A thermocouple is a device used extensively for measuring temperature
• A thermocouple is comprised of at least two metals joined together to form two junctions. One is
connected to the body whose temperature is to be measured; this is the hot or measuring junction.
The other junction is connected to a body of known temperature; this is the cold or reference
junction.
• Therefore the thermocouple measures unknown temperature of the body with reference to the
known temperature of the other body.
• 1) Seebeck effect: The Seebeck effect states that when two different or unlike metals are joined
together at two junctions, an electromotive force (emf) is generated at the two junctions. The amount
of emf generated is different for different combinations of the metals.
• 2) Peltier effect: As per the Peltier effect, when two dissimilar metals are joined together to form two
junctions, emf is generated within the circuit due to the different temperatures of the two junctions
of the circuit.
• 3) Thomson effect: As per the Thomson effect, when two unlike metals are joined together forming
two junctions, the potential exists within the circuit due to temperature gradient along the entire
length of the conductors within the circuit.
• In most of the cases the emf suggested by the Thomson effect is very small and it can be neglected by
making proper selection of the metals. The Peltier effect plays a prominent role in the working
principle of the thermocouple
• How it Works
• The general circuit for the working of thermocouple is shown in the figure 1 above. It
comprises of two dissimilar metals, A and B. These are joined together to form two junctions,
p and q, which are maintained at the temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. Remember that
the thermocouple cannot be formed if there are not two junctions. Since the two junctions
are maintained at different temperatures the Peltier emf is generated within the circuit and it
is the function of the temperatures of two junctions.
• If the temperature of both the junctions is same, equal and opposite
emf will be generated at both junctions and the net current flowing
through the junction is zero. If the junctions are maintained at
different temperatures, the emf’s will not become zero and there will
be a net current flowing through the circuit. The total emf flowing
through this circuit depends on the metals used within the circuit as
well as the temperature of the two junctions. The total emf or the
current flowing through the circuit can be measured easily by the
suitable device.
• The device for measuring the current or emf is connected within the
circuit of the thermocouple. It measures the amount of emf flowing
through the circuit due to the two junctions of the two dissimilar
metals maintained at different temperatures. In figure 2 the two
junctions of the thermocouple and the device used for measurement
of emf (potentiometer) are shown.
• Now, the temperature of the reference junctions is already known,
while the temperature of measuring junction is unknown. The output
obtained from the thermocouple circuit is calibrated directly against
the unknown temperature. Thus the voltage or current output
obtained from thermocouple circuit gives the value of unknown
temperature directly.
• Devices Used for Measuring EMF
• The amount of emf developed within the thermocouple circuit is very small,
usually in millivolts, therefore highly sensitive instruments should be used for
measuring the emf generated in the thermocouple circuit. Two devices used
commonly are the ordinary galvanometer and voltage balancing potentiometer.
Of those two, a manually or automatically balancing potentiometer is used most
often.
• Figure 2 shows the potentiometer connected in the thermocouple circuit. The
junction p is connected to the body whose temperature is to be measured. The
junction q is the reference junction, whose temperature can be measured by the
thermometer. In some cases the reference junctions can also be maintained at
the ice temperature by connecting it to the ice bath (see figure 3). This device can
be calibrated in terms of the input temperature so that its scale can give the value
directly in terms of temperature.