Week 5 - Linear Distance Measurement

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DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
Mohd Effendi Daud (Dr. Sc)
B.Surv (UTM, Malaysia) Msc (UTM, Malaysia), Dr.Sc, (Nagoya Univ., Japan)
(Geomatic Division)
Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, 86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, MALAYSIA.
Phone : +6074537363; +60197853740; Fax : +6074537060
E-mail : effendi@uthm.edu.my
Web: http://www.fkass.uthm.edu.my/
1
With Wisdom, We Explore
Introduction
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• One of the fundamentals of geomatic

measurements (surveying) is the need to
measure distance.
• Distance are not necessarily linear, especially if
they occur on the spherical earth.
• In this course we deal with linear distances,
which we can consider a straight line from one
point or features to another.
2
Introduction
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• Many varied methods have been developed to

measure distances.
• It depends on the desired quality and accuracies
of the result.
• A brief summary of relevant techniques and their
respective accuracies is explained.
3
Linear Measurement
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• Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying.

• Involving measuring the distance between two
or more fixed points.
• Direct linear measurements can be obtained or
estimated through a number of methods, but
the most common method in linear
measurements are:
• Pacing,
• Measuring wheel,
• Taping, and
• Electronic distance measurement (EDM) devices 4
Pacing
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• The ability to pace distance is very useful

• A person can determine their pace by
counting the number of paces necessary
to walk a distance that has been
previously measured.
• A pace is defined as one step
• A stride is consider two steps
5
Measuring Wheels
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6
Taping
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• Taping applies to measurement using a steel

band, fiber glass tape, metal tape, or linen tape.
• It is fairly quick, easy and cheap, and hence is
the common form of distance measurement.
• Taping is prone to errors and mistakes and these
will discussed later, but this the fundamental
technique used for distance measurement
in planar geomatic science.
7
Taping
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• Taping equipment
– Measuring Tape
• Standard is 30 m length. Normally made of
fiberglass.
8
Taping
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• Conditions for Taping

– The following conditions must be taken into
consideration;
• Taping must always be straight and must not be
twisted
• Use chaining arrows for intermediate points
• Taping must be horizontal if possible
• Make the taping on the ground if possible
• Slope measurement needs to be reduced.
9
Taping
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• Taping Procedure
– It must be remembered in geomatic that all
distances are presumed to be horizontal
distances and not surface distances.
– Every field measurement taken be either
measured horizontally or, if not, reduced to
a horizontal distance mathematically.
10
Taping
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• Tape Corrections
– Are applied to account for systematic errors
incorporated into the measured lengths due
to incorrect tape graduation, temperature
variation, sag, and/or slope.
– Tape corrections are typically relatively small
about <1% of the measured distance, but still
significant for the corrections to be applied.
11
Taping
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– The corrections are categorized as follow:

• Standardization
– The tape has a nominal length under certain conditions.
After certain period the tape stretches. Therefore,
standardization needs to be carried out frequently with
the usage of a reference tape or baseline.
Standardization Correction = L(l’ – l)/l

where,
L = recorded length of line
l = nominal length of field tape (30 m)
l’ = standardized length of field tape (30.011 )
12
Taping
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• Slope Correction
– Slope correction is usually made by observing the angle
() of the slope between the measuring head.
Slope Correction = L Cos or –L(1-Cos)
This correction is always –ve as the slope distance is

always longer than the horizontal distance
required.
13
Taping
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• Temperature Correction
– The phenomenon of thermal expansion plays an
important role in many engineering applications. Steel
tapes are calibrated at a standard temperature of 20°C.
– We need to establish a correction that can account for
the change in length of a steel tape due to the influence
of temperature.
– Therefore, temperature should be corrected for improved
precision.
14
Taping
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Temperature Correction = L(tf – ts)
where,
 = the coefficient of expansion of the tape
tf = mean field temperature (°C)
ts = temperature of standardization (20°C)
15
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DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
(Geomatic Division)
Phone : +6074537363; +60197853740; Fax : +6074537060
16
Electronic Distance
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Measurement (EDM)
• EDMs are very useful in measuring

distances that are difficult to access or
long distances
17
Electronic Distance
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Measurement (EDM)
• EDMs measure the time required for a

light wave to sent to a target and reflected
back.
18
Total Station
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• A Total station is an electronic/optical instrument

used in modern surveying.
• The total station is an electronic theodolite
integrated with an electronic distance meter
(EDM) to read distances from the instrument to
a particular point.
• Measurement of distance is accomplished with a
modulated microwave or infrared carrier signal
and reflected by a prism reflector.
19
Total Station
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• Total station & prism
20
Summary
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Summary of linear distance measurement techniques
21
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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
(Geomatic Division)
Phone : +6074537363; +60197853740; Fax : +6074537060
22
Significant Figures
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• The significant figures of a measurement

are those digit that are known, plus one
estimated digit following the known digits.
• Measurements can be precise only the
degree that the measuring instrument is
precise.
23
Significant Figures
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Example:
“What if I tell you go down Batu Pahat-

Kluang Road 1.5 km and turn left, what
should you do? What if I said instead, go
down Batu Pahat-Kluang Road 1.53 km
and turn left”
• How is that different?

24
Significant Figures
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Mathematic Operations
• When the answers to a calculation contain
too many significant figures, it must be
rounded off.
• One way of rounding off involves
– Underestimating: the answer for five of
digits (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4).
– Overestimating: the answer for the other
five (5, 6, 7, 8, and 9)
25
Significant Figures
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Mathematic Operations – cont’d

• The approach to rounding off is
summarized as follows:
– If the digits is smaller than 5, drop this and
leave the remaining number unchanged.
• Thus, 1.684 becomes 1.68
– If the digits is 5 or larger, drop this digit and
add 1 to the preceding digit.
• Thus, 1.247 becomes 1.25
26
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ERRORS IN DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT
(Geomatic Division)
Phone : +6074537363; +60197853740; Fax : +6074537060
27
Errors in Distance
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Measurement
• The main task in geomatic measurements is to
accurately measure the earth.
• It is a well recognized fact that all
measurements, except counting, contained
errors.
• There are natural in any measurement because
of residual errors, in the manufacture of the
instruments, human observations, and
environmental conditions.
28
Errors in Distance
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Measurement
• A well designed survey will eliminate
blunders and mistakes, account for any
systematic errors within the measurement
process, and
• Minimise the effects of random errors that will
still exist after blunders and systematic errors
have been either eliminated or corrected.
• The types of errors in linear measurement and
their sources of error are described as follow:
29
Errors in Distance
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Measurement
• Systematic nor Cumulative Errors

– These errors exist in nay survey measurement
and each additional measurement increase
the effect of the error.
– Such errors which may be either +ve or –ve,
can have any appreciable effect, but this can
be reduced as required by taking suitable field
precautions or correcting the observed
measurements.
30
Errors in Distance
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Measurement

– The example of systematic errors are as
follow:
• Wrong length of tape (+ve or –ve),
• Slope (+ve or –ve),
• Sag (+ve or –ve), and
• Temperature (+ve or –ve).
31
Errors in Distance
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Measurement

– Systematic errors can be eliminated by
procedures such as
• Balancing foresight and backsight in a level loop,
• By applying a correction such as a temperature
correction to a taped measurement,
• By applying a calibration for EDM or Total Station,
and
• Taking suitable field precautions.
32
Errors in Distance
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Measurement
• Compensating or Accidental Errors

– Although every precaution may be taken,
certain unavoidable errors always exist in any
measurement.
– Sometimes +ve or –ve, they tend to cancel
each other out in the long run.
– Some examples of accidental errors are
holding and marking, instrument pointing,
and variation in tension.
33
Errors in Distance
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Measurement
• Compensating or Accidental Errors

– Because of the equal probability of algebraic
sign, random errors tend to be compensating.
– Procedures and corrections can’t compensate
for random error.
– Random error must be distributed throughout
the survey based on most probable values by
adjustment procedures.
34
Errors in Distance
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Measurement
• Gross / Blunders Errors

– These errors arise from mistakes,
carelessness or lack of experience.
– They are quite random and allowance cannot
be made fro them.
– Examples of gross errors are:
• Miscounting tape lengths,
• Misreading the tape, and
• Wrong booking.
35
Errors in Distance
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Measurement
• Gross / Blunders Errors

– Usually be detected by
• Computing survey closures,
• Carefully checking recorded, and
• Computed values and checking observations.
36
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ACCURACY & PRECISION

(Geomatic Division)
Phone : +6074537363; +60197853740; Fax : +6074537060
37
Accuracy & Precision
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• The term accuracy and precision are often

confused, even though their meaning are
quite different.
• Is a measurement accurate? Is it precise?
38
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• Accuracy
– Accuracy is the degree of closeness to the truth.
– If one measurement is taken and happens to agree
with a known true value, then it is an accurate
measurement.
• Precision
– Precision is the degree of repeatability in repeated
measurements.
– If repeated measurements agree with other, then
they are precise.
39
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Suppose that you measure the same line five

times.
The first party reports the following measurements:

736.80, 736.75, 736.70, 736.85, & 736.65 -----> more
accurate
The second party reports the following measurements:

736.42, 736.40, 736.40, 736.42, & 736.41 -----> more
precise
The true length of the line is 736.72 m

40
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• Example:
– If you are playing soccer and you always hit
the left goal post instead of scoring, then you
are NOT accurate, but you ARE precise.
– Better precision does not necessarily mean
better accuracy.
The objective of geomatics measurement

is to make measurements that are both
precise and accurate.
41
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• Example;
Low Accuracy High Accuracy High Accuracy

High Precision Low Precision High Precision
42
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Bias (don’t let precision fool you!)

• If you measure something several times and all
values are close, they may still all be wrong if
there is a “BIAS”.
• BIAS is a systematic (built in) error which makes
all measurements wrong by a certain amount.
• Example of Bias: You always measure your
height wearing shoes with thick soles.
43
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Degree of Accuracy
• Accuracy depends on the instrument you
are measuring with. But as a general rule:
“The degree of accuracy is half a unit each side
of the unit of measure”
44
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Degree of Accuracy
If your instrument measures in

"1"s then any value between 6½
and 7½ is measured as "7"
If your instrument measures in

"2"s then any value between 7
and 9 is measured as "8"
45
Exercise 2.1
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• What are the consideration that need to

be taken during a taping procedure?
• Describe how you would carry out a

taping process to determine the length of
2 pegs on a hilly slope approximately 60 m
apart.
46
Exercise 2.2
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• Briefly describe the type of errors in linear

measurement and explain their sources of
error. What type of errors are classified as
blunders and mistake in linear
measurement?
47

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www.uthm.edu.

• One of the fundamentals of geomatic

• Many varied methods have been developed to

• Linear measurement is the basis of all surveying.

• The ability to pace distance is very useful

• Taping applies to measurement using a steel

• Conditions for Taping

– The corrections are categorized as follow:

Standardization Correction = L(l’ – l)/l

– The corrections are categorized as follow:

Slope Correction = L Cos or –L(1-Cos)

This correction is always –ve as the slope distance is

– The corrections are categorized as follow:

Temperature Correction = L(tf – ts)

• EDMs are very useful in measuring

• EDMs measure the time required for a

• A Total station is an electronic/optical instrument

• Total station & prism

Summary of linear distance measurement techniques

• The significant figures of a measurement

“What if I tell you go down Batu Pahat-

• How is that different?

Mathematic Operations – cont’d

• Systematic nor Cumulative Errors

• Systematic nor Cumulative Errors

• Systematic nor Cumulative Errors

• Compensating or Accidental Errors

• Compensating or Accidental Errors

• Gross / Blunders Errors

• Gross / Blunders Errors

ACCURACY & PRECISION

• The term accuracy and precision are often

Suppose that you measure the same line five

The first party reports the following measurements:

The second party reports the following measurements:

The true length of the line is 736.72 m

The objective of geomatics measurement

Low Accuracy High Accuracy High Accuracy

Bias (don’t let precision fool you!)

If your instrument measures in

If your instrument measures in

• What are the consideration that need to

• Describe how you would carry out a

• Briefly describe the type of errors in linear

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