DEFINATION

 CARBOHYDRATES MAY BE DEFINED AS POLYHYDROXY

ALDEHYDES OR KETONES OR COMPOUNDS WHICH
PRODUCE THEM ON HYDROLYSIS.
 DURING DIGESTION A AND CELLULAR METABBOLISM,THE
CARBOHYDRATES ARE CONVERTED TO GLUCOSE WHICH
PROVIDE ENERGY TO OUR BODY AND WHICH ARE
FURTHER CONVERTED TO PROTEINS,NUCLEIC
ACIDS,LIPDS.

 THE GENERAL FORMULA OF CARBOHYDRATE IS Cx(H2O)y.

 THERE ARE SOME COMPOUNDS WHICH SATISFY THE

FOEMULA BUT ARE NOT CARBOHYDRATES.EXAMPLE:
ACETIC ACID CH3COOH
 THERE ARE ALSO SOME COMPOUNDS WHICH DO NOT
SATISFY THE FORMULA BUT ARE CARBOHYDRATE.
EXAMPLE:DEOXYRIBOSE C5H10O4
CLASSIFICATION
D AND L ISOMERS
 D AND L ISOMERS ARE MIRROR IMAGES OF
EACH OTHER.

 THE SPATIAL OREINTATION OF –H AND –

OH GROUPS ON THE CARBON ATOM (C 5
FOR GLUCOSE) THAT IS ADJACENT TO THE
TERMINAL PRIMARY ALCOHOL CARBON
DETERMINES WHETHER THE SUGAR IS D
AND L ISOMER.

 IF THE -OH GROUP IS ON THE RIGHT SIDE,

THEN THE SUGAR IS OF D SERIS.

 IF THE -OH GROUP IS ON THE LEFT SIDE,

THEN THE SUGAR IS OF L SERIES.
ENANTIOMERS
 ENANTIOMERS ARE A SPECIAL TYPE OF
STEREISOMERS THAT ARE MIRROR IMAGES
OF EACH OTHER.
 THE D AND L SUGAR ARE MIRROR IMAGES
OF EACH OTHER ARE ENANTIOMERS.
STREOISOMERISM
 STEREOISOMERISM IS AN IMPORTANT
CHARACTER OF MONOSACCHARIDES.

 STEREOISOMERS ARE THE COMPOUNDS

THAT HAVE THE SAME STRUCTURAL
FORMULAE BUT DIFFER IN THEIR SPATIAL
CONFIGURATION.

 THE NUMBER OF ASYMMETRIC CARBON

ATOMS (n) DETERMINES THE POSSIBLE
ISOMERS OF A GIVEN COMPOUND WHICH
IS EQUAL TO 2 n

 FOR EXAMPLE :
 GLUCOSE CONTAINS 4 ASYMMERTIC
CARBONS AND THUS HAS 16 ISOMERS.
OPTICAL ACTIVITY OF
SUGARS
OPTICAL ACTIVITY OF
SUGARS
 OPTICAL ACTIVITY IS A CHATERISTIC FEATURE OF
COMPOUNDS WITH ASYMETRIC CARBON ATOM.

 WHEN A BEAM OF POLARIZED LIGHT IS PASSED THROUGH

A SOLUTION OF AN OPTICAL ISOMER,IT WILL BE ROTATED
EITHER TO THE RIGHT OR LEFT. THE TERM
DEXTROROTATORY(+) AND LEVOROTATORY(-) ARE USED
TO COMPOUNDS THAT RESPECTIVELY ROTATES THE
PLANE OF POLARIZED LIGHT TO THE RIGHT OR LEFT.

 AN OPTICAL ISOMER MAY BE DESIGNATED AS D(+),D(-

),L(+),L(-) BAESD ON THE STRUCTURAL RELATION WITH
GLYCERALDEHYDE.

 RACEMIC MIXTURE : IF D AND L ISOMERS ARE EQUAL IN

CONCENTRATION IT IS KNOWN AS RACEMIC MIXTURE OR
DL MIXTURE.
 RACEMIC MIXTURE DOES NOT EXHIBIT OPTICAL ACTIVITY.
 EPIMERS:IF TWO MONOSACHARIDE DIFFER
FROM EACH OTHER IN THEIR CONFIGURATION
AROUND A SINGLE CARBON THER ARE
REFERRED TO AS EPIMERS TO EACH OTHER.
 EXAMPLE GLUCOSE AND GALACTOSE ARE
EPIMERS WITH REGARD TO CARBON 4.THE
PROCCESS OF CONVERSION GROM GLUCOSE TO
GALACTOSE AND VICE VERSA IS
EPIMERIZATION.
GLYCERALDEHYDE
SUCROSE
MUTAROTATION
 THE MUTAROTAION IS DEFINED AS THE CHANGE IN
THE SPECIFIC OPTICAL ROTATION REPRESENTING THE
INTERCONVERSION OF α AND β FORMS OF D-GLUCOSE
TO AN EQULIBRIUM.
 ANOMERS: ANOMERS ARE CYCLIC MONOSACCHARIDES OR
GLYCOSIDES THAT ARE EPIMERS, DIFFERING FROM EACH
OTHER IN THE CONFIGURATION OF C-1 IF THEY ARE
ALDOSES OR IN THE CONFIGURATION AT C-2 IF THEY ARE
KETOSES.
MONOSACCHARIDES
 MONOSACCHARIDES (GREEK : MONO –ONE)
ARE THE SIMPLEST GROUP OF
CARBOHYDRATES AND ARE ALSO REFERRED
TO AS SIMPLE SUGARS.

 THEY HAVE THE GENERAL FORMULA Cx(H2O)y

 THEY CANNOT BE FURTHER HYDROLYSED.

 THE ARE DIVIDED ON THE BASIS OF
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS,NUMBER OF CARBON
ATOM.
 MONOSACCHARIDE:
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
FUCTIONAL GROUP

GLYCERAL DI
DEHYDE HYDROXY
ACETONE
MONOSACCHARIDE:
CLASSIFICATION BASED
ON THE NUMBER OF
CARBON ATOMS
 MONOSACCHARIDES ARE REGARDED AS
TRIOSES (3C)
 TETROSES (4C)
 PENTOSES (5C)
 HEXOSES (6C)
 HEPTOSES (7C)
 FOR EXAMPLE, GLUCOSE IS AN ALDOHEXOSE
 FRUCTOSE IS AN KETOHEXOSE
REACTIONS
1.TAUTOMERIZATION OR ENOLIZATION :
THE PROCESS OF SHIFTING A HYDROGEN ATOM FROM
CARBON ATOM ANOTHER TO PRODUCE ENEDIOLS IS
KNOWN AS TAUTOMERIZATION.THIS REACTION
KNOWN AS THE LOBRY DE BRUYN –VON EKENSTEIN
TRANSFORMATION.
REDUCTION
 WHEN TREATED WITH REDUCING AGENTS
SUCH AS SODIUM AMALGAM,THE
ALDEHYDE OR KETO GROUP OF
MONOSACCHARIDE IS REDUCED.
 DEHYDRATION
 WHEN TREATED WITH
CONCENTRATED SULFURIC ACID
,MONNDOSACCHARIDE UNDERGO
DEHYDRATION WITH AN
ELIMINATION OF 3 WATER
MOLECULES WITH PHENOLIC
COMPOUNDS(α-NAPTHOL) TO FORM
COLOURED PRODUCT

 THIS IS THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF THE

POPULAR MOLISCH TEST.
OSAZONE FORMATION
 PHENLY HYDRAZINE IN ACETIC ACID,WHEN
BOILED WITH REDUCING SUGARS , FORMS
OSAZONES IN A REACTION.
 DISACCHARIDES
 A disaccharide is the
sugar formed when two
monosaccharide are
(α-D-glucosyl(1 joined by glycosidic
→2) β-D-fructose) linkage. Like
monosaccharide,
disaccharides are
soluble in water.
 Three common
examples are sucrose,
(β-D-galactosyl(1 lactose, and maltose.
→4) β-D-glucose) Disaccharides are one
of the four chemical
groupings of
carbohydrates.

(α-D-glucosyl(1 →4)
α-D-glucose
HAWORTH PROJECTION
FORMULA RULES
 FOR CARBOHYDRATES OF D SERIES:
A)IF HYDROXY GROUP IS DOWN,THE CONFIGURATION
OF ANOMERIC CARBON IS α.
B)IF HYDROXY GROUP IS UP ,THE CONFIGURATION OF
ANOMERIC CARBON IS β.

 FOR CARBOHYDRATES OF L SERIES:

A)IF HYDROXY GROUP IS UP,THE CONFIRGURATION OF
ANOMERIC CARBON IS α.
B)IF HYROXY GROUP IS DOWN,THE CONFIRGURATION OF
ANOMERIC CARBON IS β.
GLYCOSIDIC
 A glycosidic bond is formed between
the hemiacetal or hemiketal group of
a saccharide(or a molecule derived from a
saccharide) and the hydroxylgroup of some
compound such as an alcohol.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
 An oligosaccharide is a
saccharide polymer
containing a small number
(3-10)of monosaccharides.
Oligosaccharides can have
many functions including
cell recognition and cell
binding.
 For example, glycolipids
have an important role in
the immune response.
POLYSACCHARIDES
 Polysaccharides are
polymeric carbohydrate
molecules composed of long
chains of monosaccharide
units bound together by
glycosidic linkages, and on
hydrolysis give the
constituent monosaccharides
or oligosaccharides. They
range in structure from linear
to highly branched.
HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES

HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDE
MCQ SECTION!
ANSWERS FOR MCQ
 1.d
 2.b
 3.b
 4.b
 6.b
 7.d
 8.b
 9.b
THANK YOU!