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The Brain and Cranial Nerves
The Brain and Cranial Nerves
ACHMAD AMINUDDIN
MAJOR PARS OF THE BRAIN
THE BRAIN STEM
Consists of the medulla oblongata, pons and
midbrain
CREBELLUM
DIENCEPHALON
Consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus and
epithalamus
CEREBRUM
Fig 14.1
PROTECTIVE COVERING OF
THE BRAIN
The cranium
The cranial meninges
- Duramater
- Falx cerebri
- Falx cerebelli
- Tentorium cerebelli
- Arachnoid mater
- Piamater
Fig 14,2
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
The medulla begins at the foramen magnum
and extends to the inferior border of the pons,
a distance of about 3 cm.
The medulla‘s white matter
- Sensory tracts.
- Motor tracts.
- Pyramids
The decussation of pyramids
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
The cardiovascular center
The medullary rhythmicity area of the
respiratory center adjust the basic rhythm of
breathing.
Nuclei controls reflexes for fomiting, coughing
swallowing, hiccuping and sneezing.
Within the olive is the inferior olivary nucleus.
Neuron here relay impulsis from
proprioceptors to the cerebellum
Fig 14.5
Fig 14.6
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
The right and left gracile nucleus and cuneate
nucleus.
The medial lemniscus
Five pairs of cranial nerves
- Vestibulocochlear N.
- Glossopharyngeal N.
- Vagus N.
- Accessory N ( cranial portion )
- Hypoglossal N.
RESPIRATORY CENTER
THE MEDULLARY RHYTHMICITY
- in the medulla ( inspiratory and expr area ).
- control the basic rhythm of respiration.
THE PNEUMOTAXIC AREA
- in the pons
- help turn off the inspiratory area before the
the lungs become too full – breathing > rap
■ APNEUSTIC AREA
- in the pons, sends stimulatory impuls to the
inspiratory area – long and deep inhalation
MEDULLARY RYTHMICITY
AREA
DURING NORMAL QUIET BREATHING
Inspiratory area ACTIVE , 2 seconds
- diaphragm and external intercostals contract.
- normal quiet inhalation
Inspiratory area INACTIVE , 3 second
- diaphragm and external intercostal relax ,
followed by elastic recoil of the chestwall
and lungs.
- normal quiet exhalation
MEDULLARY RYTHMICITY
AREA
During forceful breathing
Inspiratory area active
- diaphragm, sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis
minor and scalene muscles contract ---------
forceful inhalation.
- Expiratory area
- internal intercostal and abdominal muscles
contract ---------- forceful exhalation
PONS
The pons lies directly superior to the medulla and
anterior to the cerebellum and is about 2,5 cm
Several pontine nuclei
The pneumotaxic area.
The apneustic area
Four pairs of cranial nerves
- Trigeminal n.
- Abducents n.
- Facial n.
- Vestibulocochlear n.
PNEUMOTAXIC AREA
In the pons
Help coordinate the transition between
inhalation and exhalation.
Help turn off the inspiratory area before the
lungs become too full of air.
If more active , breathing rate is more rapid
APNEUSTIC AREA
In the pons.
Coordinates the transition between inhalation
and exhalation.
Stimularory impulses to theinspiratory area
that activate it and prolong inhalation. The
result is a long and deep inhalation
MIDBRAIN
Mesencephalon extends from the pons to the
diencephalon, is about 2,5 cm.
The cerebral aqueduct passes through the midbrain.
Cerebral peduncles
- Corticospinal tract.
- Corticopontine.
- Corticobulbar.
Tectum
- The superior colliculi
MIDBRAIN
TECTUM
Superior colliculi
- Refflex centers for certain visual activity.
- Responsible for reflexes that govern
movements of the eyes, head and neck in
response to visual stimuli.
Inferior colliculi
MIDBRAIN
TECTUM
Inferior colliculi
- part of the auditory pathway, relaying impul
ses from the receptors for hearing in the ear
to thalamus.
- reflexcenter for the startle reflex ( moveme
ment of the head and body )
Fig 14.7 a
Fig 14.7 b
MIDBRAIN
TECTUM
Inferior colliculi
- Part of the auditory pathway, relaying impul
from the receptors for hearing in the ear to
the thalamus.
- Reflex centers for the startle reflex.
MIDBRAIN
Substantia nigra
- Release dopamine.
- Extending from the substantia nigra to the
basal ganglia, help control suconscious
muscle activity.
- Loss of these nurons is associated with
Parkinson disease.
MIDBRAIN
Red nuclei
- Axon from the cerebellum and cerebral
cortex form synapses in the red nuclei, which
function with the cerebellum tocoordinate
muscular movements
Cranial nerve
- Oculomotor n.
- Trochlear n.
RETICULAR FORMATION
The broad region where white matter and gray matter exhibit
netlike arrangement .
Extends from the upper part of the spinal cord , throughout the
brain stem, and into the lower part of the diencephalon.
Have ascending and descending neurons.
The reticular activating system ( RAS )
- Consists of sensory axons that project to the
cerebral cortex .
- Help maitain consciousness and is activate during
awakening from sleep.
- Help regulate muscle tone .
Fig 16.10
THE CEREBELLUM
Fig 14.8 a
Fig 14.8 c
THE CEREBELLUM
The anterior and posterior lobes govern
subconscious aspects of skeletal muscle
movements.
The flocculonodular lobe contributes to
equilibrium and balance.
Cerebellar nuclei, within the white matter, are
the region of gray matter that give rise to axon
carrying impulses from the cerebellum to other
brain centers and the spinal cord.
CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLES
The inferior cerebellar peduncles
- Carry sensory information from the vestibular
apparatus of the inner ear and from proprio-
ceptors throughout the body into the cerebe-
llum; their axons extend from the inferior
olivary nucleus of the medulla and from the
spinocerebellar tracts of the spinal cord into the
cerebellum
The middle cerebellar peduncles
CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLES
The middle cerebellar peduncles
- Their axons carry commands for voluntary
movements ( those that originate in motor
area of the cerebral cortex ) from the pontine
nuclei into the cerebellum.
The superior cerebellar peduncles
- Contain axons that extend from the cerebe –
llum to the red nuclei of the midbrain and to
several nuclei of the thalamus.
THE DIENCEPHALON
Extends from the brain stem to the cerebrum
and surounds the third ventricle.
Includes
- Thalamus.
- Hypothalamus.
- Epithalamus.
THALAMUS
3cm in length and make up 80% of the
diencephalon.
Consist of paired oval masses of gray matter
organized into nuclei with interspersed tract of
white matter.
The intermediate mass joints the right and left
halves of the thalamus in about 70 %
Fig 14.9
THALAMUS
The thalamus is the major relay station for
most sensory impulses that that reach the
primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex
from the spinal cod and brain stem. Although
crude perseption of pain ful, thermal and
pressure sensations arise at the level of the
thalamus , precise localization of these
senasations depends on nerve impulses ariving
at the cerebral cortex
THALAMUS
The thalamus contributes to motor functions
by transmitting information from the
cerebellum and basal ganglia to the primary
motor area of the cerebral cortex. It also relays
nerve impulses between different area of the
cerebrum, and plays arole in the regulation of
autonomic activities and the maintenance of
consciousness. Axon that connect the thalamus
and cerebral cortex pass through the internal
capsule
THALAMUS
The internal medullary lamina, devides the
gray matter of the right and left of the
thalamus. It consist of myelinated axons that
enter and leave the various thalamic nuclei.
Seven major groups of nuclei
1. The anterior nucleus, connect to the
hypothalamus and limbic system. It function
in emotions, regulation of alertness, and
memory.
SEVEN MAJOR GROUP OF
NUCLEI
The anterior nucleus.
The medial nuclei, connect to the cerebral cortex,
limbic system and basal ganglia. They function in
emotions, learning, memory, awareness and cognition
Nuclei in the lateral group connect to the superior
colliculi, limbic system, and cortex in all lobes of the
cerebrum.
The lateral dorsal nucleus functions in the expression
of emotions
SEVEN MAJOR GROUP OF
NUCLEI
The lateral posterior nucleus and pulvinar
nucleus help integrate sensory information.
Five nuclei are part of the ventral group. The
ventral anterior nucleus contribute to motor
functions, possibly movement planning. The
ventral lateral nucleus, connect to the
cerebellum and motor parts of the of the
cerebral cortex. It neurons are active during
movements on the opposite side of the body.
SEVEN MAJOR GROUP OF
NUCLEI
The ventral posterior nucleus,relays impulses for
somatic sensations such as touch, pressure,
proprioception, vibration, heat cold, and pain from
the face and body to the cerebral cortex.
The lateral feniculate nucleus, relays visual impulses
for sight from the retina to the primary visual area of
the cerebral cortex.
The medial geniculate nucleus, relays auditory
impulses for hearing from the ear to the primary
auditory area of the cerebral cortex.
SEVEN MAJOR GROUP OF
NUCLEI
Intralaminar nuclei, lie within the internal medullary lamina
and make connection with the reticular formation, cerebellum,
basal ganglia and wide areas of the cerebral cortex.They
funcion in pain peception, integration of sensory and motor
information and aurosal.
Themidline nucleus form a thin band adjacent to the third
ventricle and has a presumed functin in memory and olfaction.
The reticular nucleus, surround the lateral aspect of the
thalamus, nect to the internal capsule. This nuclei monitors,
filters and integrate activities of othe thalamic nuclei.
HYPOTHALAMUS
The mammilary region, includes mammilary
bodies and posterior hypothalamic nuclei. The
mammilary bodies serve as relay stations for
reflexes related to the sense of smell.
The tuberal region includes the dorsomedial
nucleus, ventromedial nucleus and arcuate
nucleus, plus the infundibulum. The median
eminence encircle infundibulum.
Fig 14.10
HYPOTHALAMUS
The supraoptic region, contains the paraventri cular
nucleus, supraoptic nucleus, anterior hypothalamic
nucleus and suprachiasmatic nucleus. Axon from the
paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei form the
hypothalamohypo physeal tract, which extends
through the infundibulum to theposterior lobe of the
pituitary.
Preoptic region, participates with the hypothalamus in
regulating certain autonomic activities.Preoptic
region contains the medial and lateral preoptic nuclei.
HYPOTHALAMUS
Control of the ANS. Axon extend from the
hypothalamus to sympathetic and parasympathetic
nuclei in the brain stem and spinal cord.
Production of hormones
Regulation of emotional and bihavioral patterns.
Together with the limbic system.
Regulation of eating and drinking.
Through the arcuate and paraventricular nuclei.
Thirst center.
HYPOTHALAMUS
Control of body temperature.
Directs the autonomic nervous system.
Regulation of circadian rhythmsa nd states of
consciousness.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus , this nucleus
receives input from the eyes ( retina ) and
sends output to other hypothalamic nuclei, the
reticular formation, and the pineal gland
EPITHALAMUS
Consists of the pineal gland and habenulare
nuclei.
Pineal gland, it secretes the hormone
melatonin. As more melatonin is liberated
during darkness than in light. Melatonin also
appears to contribute to the setting of the
body`s biological clock.
The habenular nuclei, are involved in olfaction
especially emotional responses to odors
CIRCUM VENTRICULAR
ORGAN
Can monitor chemical changes in the blood
CVOs include part of hypothalamus, the pineal
gland, the pituitary gland, and a few other
nearby structures.
CVOs , coordinate homeostatik activities of
the endocrine and nervous systems, such as the
regulation of blood pressure, fluid balance,
hunger and thirst
THE CEREBRUM
Fig 14.11
CEREBRAL WHITE MATTER
ASSOCIATION TRACTS, contain axons that
conduct nerve impulses between gyri in the same
hemisphere.
COMMISSURAL TRACTS, contain axons that
conduct nerve impulses from gyri in one cerebral
hemosphere to corresponding gyri in the other
cerebral hemisphere. Three commissural tracts are
corpus callosum, anterior commissure and posterior
commissure.
PROJECTION TRACTS, an example is the internal
capsule ( conduct n impulses from the cerebrum to
the lower parts of the CNS or reverse )
BASAL GANGLIA
CORPUS STRIATUM
- Lentiform nucleus
- Globus pallidus.
- Putamen.
- Caudate nuclei
Nearby structures that are functionally linked
to the basal ganglia are the substantia nigra of
the midbrain and the subthalamic nuclei
BASAL GANGLIA
The basal ganglia receive impul from the cerebral
cortex and provide output back to motor part of the
cortex via medial and ventral group nuclei of the
thalamus
Help regulate initiation and termination of movement
.
Activity of neuronsin the putamen precedes or
anticipates body movement, and activity of neurons
in the caudate nucleus occur prior to eye movements
BASAL GANGLIA
The globus pallidus helps regulate the muscle
tone required for specific body movement.
Control subconscious contraction of skeletal
muscles.
Help initiate and terminate some cognitive
processes.
Act with the limbic system to regulate
emotional bihaviors.
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
Damage to the basal ganglia, result in uncontrollable
shaking ( tremor ) , muscular regidity, and
involuntary muscle movement.
Movement disruptions such as these are a hallmark of
disorder like Parkinson disease. In this disorder ,
neuron that extend from the substantia nigra to the
putamen and caudate nucleus degenerate, causing
disruption.
Some psychiatric disorders, are thought to involve
dysfunction of circuit between the basal ganglia and
the limbic system.
INTERNAL CAPSULE
BETWEEN THE LENTIFORN NUCLEUS
AND THE THALAMUS
THE MOST COMMON SITE FOR A
STROKE .
CONTAI FIBERS RUNNING FROM
THALAMUS TO CORTEX AND FROM
CORTEX TO THALAMUS, BRAIN STEM
AND SPINAL CORD.
INTERNAL CAPSULE
ANTERIOR LIMB , between the lentiform
nucleus and the head of the caudate nucleus
GENU.
POSTERIOR LIMB , between the lentiform
nucleus and the thalamus.
RETROLENTIFORM PART , behind the
lentiform nucleus and lateral to the thalamus
SUBLENTIFORM PART (auditory radiation )
THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
The limbic lobe, it includes the cingulate gyrus
, parahippocampal gyrus. The hippocampus, is
portion of the parahippocampus.
Dentate gyrus
Amygdala.
Septal nuclei.
The mammillary bodies of the hipothalamus
THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
The anterior nucleus and the medial nucleus of the
thalamus.
The olfactory bulbs.