C 2 The Biological Perspective: Hapter

CHAPTER 2
the biological perspective
psychology
fourth edition
Psychology, Fourth Edition Copyright ©2015, 2012, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives
2.1 What are the nervous system, neurons, and nerves, and how do they relate to
one another?
2.2 How do neurons use neurotransmitters to communicate with each other and with
the body?
2.3 How do the brain and spinal cord interact, and what are some misconceptions
about the brain?
2.4 How do the somatic and autonomic nervous systems allow people and animals to
interact with their surroundings and control the body’s automatic functions?
2.5 How do the hormones released by glands interact with the nervous system and
affect behavior?
2.7 What are the different structures of the hindbrain and what do they do?
2.8 What are the structures of the brain that control emotion, learning, memory, and
motivation?
2.9 What parts of the cortex control the different senses and the movement of the
body?
2.10 What parts of the cortex are responsible for higher forms of thought, such as
language?
2.11 How does the left side of the brain differ from the right side?
Overview of Nervous System
LO 2.1 What Are the Nervous System, Neurons, and Nerves?
• Nervous system
– an extensive network of specialized cells that
carry information to and from all parts of the
body
• Neuroscience
– deals with the structure and function of
neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue
– relationship to behavior and learning
ISLAMIC OVERVIEW
• Man is created by Allah with dual nature
(biological body and spiritual entity)
• When the spirit enters the body, it is
known as the soul and it governs the body
and interacts with various biological
processes to produce behaviour and
mental processes
ISLAMIC OVERVIEW
• When reading about bio-psychological
research, be aware that psychologists
sometimes cannot decide between
biological control and biological
involvement in behaviour.
• Do not get trapped into believing that
biological factors totally determine our
behaviours
Structure of the Neuron
• Neuron
– the basic cell that makes up the nervous
system and receives and sends messages
within that system
Structure of the Neuron
• Parts of a neuron
– dendrites: branch-like structures that receive
messages from other neurons
– soma: the cell body of the neuron, responsible
for maintaining the life of the cell
– axon: long, tube-like structure that carries the
neural message to other cells
Figure 2.2 The Structure of the Neuron
The electronmicrograph on the left shows myelinated axons.
Other Types of Brain Cells
• Glial cells are grey fatty cells that:

– provide support for the neurons to grow on
and around
– deliver nutrients to neurons
– produce myelin to coat axons
Other Types of Brain Cells
• Myelin: fatty substances produced by

certain glial cells that coat the axons of
neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up
the neural impulse
– clean up waste products and dead neurons
Generating the Message: Neural Impulse
• Ions: charged particles

– inside neuron: negatively charged
– outside neuron: positively charged
• Resting potential: the state of the neuron
when not firing a neural impulse
• Action potential: the release of the neural
impulse consisting of a reversal of the
electrical charge within the axon
– allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell
Generating the Message: Neural Impulse
• All-or-none: a neuron either fires

completely or does not fire at all
• Return to resting potential
Figure 2.3 The Neural Impulse Action Potential
In the graph below, voltage readings are shown at a given place on the neuron over a period of 20 or 30 milliseconds
(thousandths of a second). At first the cell is resting; it then reaches threshold and an action potential is triggered. After
a brief hyperpolarization period, the cell returns to its resting potential.
Figure 2.3 (continued) The Neural Impulse Action Potential
In the graph below, voltage readings are shown at a given place on the neuron over a period of 20 or 30 milliseconds
(thousandths of a second). At first the cell is resting; it then reaches threshold and an action potential is triggered. After
a brief hyperpolarization period, the cell returns to its resting potential.
Communication Between Neurons
LO 2.2 How Neurons Use Neurotransmitters to Communicate
• Sending the message to other cells

• Axon terminals: rounded areas at the end
of the branches at the end of the axon
– responsible for communicating with other
nerve cells
Neuron Communication
• Synaptic vesicles: sack-like structures

found inside the axon terminal containing
chemicals
– neurotransmitter: chemical found in the
synaptic vesicles which, when released, has
an effect on the next cell
• synapse/synaptic gap: microscopic fluid-filled

space between the rounded areas on the end of
the axon terminals of one cell and the dendrites
or surface of the next cell
• receptor sites: holes in the surface of the

dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and
glands, which are shaped to fit only certain
neurotransmitters
Figure 2.4 Reuptake of Dopamine
Dopamine is removed from the synapse by reuptake sites. Cocaine acts by blocking dopamine reuptake sites, allowing
dopamine to remain active in the synapse longer.
• Neurons must be turned ON and OFF

– excitatory neurotransmitter: neurotransmitter
that causes the receiving cell to fire
– inhibitory neurotransmitter: neurotransmitter
that causes the receiving cell to stop firing
Cleaning up the Synapse
• reuptake: process by which

neurotransmitters are taken back into the
synaptic vesicles
Figure 2.5 An Overview of the Nervous System
Central Nervous System
LO 2.3 How the Brain and Spinal Cord Interact
• Central nervous system (CNS): part of the

nervous system consisting of the brain and
spinal cord
– spinal cord: a long bundle of neurons that
carries messages to and from the body to the
brain that is responsible for very fast,
lifesaving reflexes
The Reflex Arc: Three Types of Neurons
• Sensory neuron: a neuron that carries

information from the senses to the central
nervous system
– also called an afferent neuron
• Motor neuron: a neuron that carries
messages from the central nervous
system to the muscles of the body
– also called an efferent neuron
The Reflex Arc: Three Types of Neurons
• Interneuron: a neuron found in the center

of the spinal cord that receives information
from the sensory neurons and sends
commands to the muscles through the
motor neurons
– interneurons also make up the bulk of the
neurons in the brain
Peripheral Nervous System
LO 2.4 Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): all

nerves and neurons that are not contained
in the brain and spinal cord but that run
through the body itself
– divided into the:
 somatic nervous system
 autonomic nervous system
Figure 2.7 The Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System
• Soma = “body”
• Somatic nervous system: division of the
PNS consisting of nerves that carry
information from the senses to the CNS
and from the CNS to the voluntary
muscles of the body
– sensory pathway: nerves coming from the
sensory organs to the CNS consisting of
sensory neurons
Somatic Nervous System
• Somatic nervous system (cont’d)

– motor pathway: nerves coming from the CNS
to the voluntary muscles, consisting of motor
neurons
Autonomic Nervous System
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

– division of the PNS consisting of nerves that
control all of the involuntary muscles, organs,
and glands; sensory pathway nerves coming
from the sensory organs to the CNS
consisting of sensory neurons
Autonomic Nervous System
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

(cont’d)
– sympathetic division (fight-or-flight system):
part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting
to stressful events and bodily arousal
– parasympathetic division: part of the ANS that
restores the body to normal functioning after
arousal and is responsible for the day-to-day
functioning of the organs and glands
Figure 2.8 Functions of the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions of the Nervous System
The Endocrine Glands
LO 2.5 How Hormones Interact with the Nervous System and Affect Behavior
• Endocrine glands: glands that secrete

chemicals called hormones directly into
the bloodstream
– hormones: chemicals released into the
bloodstream by endocrine glands
• Ibn Sina in his book ‘Al-Qanun’ had written
on issues such as anatomy, central
nervous system, hemispheric
specialisation of the brain, and spinal cord.
Figure 2.9 The Endocrine Glands
• pituitary gland: gland located in the brain that

secretes human growth hormone and influences
all other hormone-secreting glands (also known
as the master gland)
• pineal gland: endocrine gland located near the
base of the cerebrum that secretes melatonin
• thyroid gland: endocrine gland found in the neck
that regulates metabolism
• pancreas: endocrine gland that controls the
levels of sugar in the blood
• gonads: the sex glands; secrete hormones that

regulate sexual development and behavior as well
as reproduction
– ovaries: the female gonads
– testes: the male gonads
• adrenal glands: endocrine glands located on top of
each kidney
– secrete over thirty different hormones to deal with
stress, regulate salt intake
– provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting
the sexual changes that occur during adolescence
Figure 2.12 Major Structures of the Human Brain
The Hindbrain
LO 2.7 Structures and Functions of the Bottom Part of Brain
• The Hindbrain
– medulla: first large swelling at the top of the
spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the
brain
 responsible for life-sustaining functions such as
breathing, swallowing, and heart rate
– pons: larger swelling above the medulla that
connects the top of the brain to the bottom
 plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left–right body
coordination, and arousal
The Hindbrain
LO 2.7 Structures and Functions of the Bottom Part of Brain
– reticular formation (RF): area of neurons

running through the middle of the medulla and
the pons and slightly beyond
 responsible for selective attention
– cerebellum: part of the lower brain located
behind the pons
 controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine
motor movement
Figure 2.13 The Limbic System
Structures under the Cortex
LO 2.8 Structures that Control Emotion, Learning, Memory, and Motivation
• Limbic system: a group of several brain

structures located under the cortex and
involved in learning, emotion, memory,
and motivation
– thalamus: part of the limbic system located in
the center of the brain
 relays sensory information from the lower part of
the brain to the proper areas of the cortex
 processes some sensory information before
sending it to its proper area
• Limbic System (cont’d)

– hypothalamus: small structure in the brain
located below the thalamus and directly
above the pituitary gland
 responsible for motivational behavior such as
sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex
– hippocampus: curved structure located within
each temporal lobe
 responsible for the formation of long-term
memories and the storage of memory for location
of objects
• Limbic System (cont’d)

– amygdala: brain structure located near the
hippocampus
 responsible for fear responses and the memory of
fear
– cingulate cortex: the limbic structure actually
found in the cortex
 plays important roles in cognitive and emotional
processing
Cortex
LO 2.9 Parts of Cortex Controlling Senses and Movement
• cortex: outermost covering of the brain

consisting of densely packed neurons
– responsible for higher thought processes and
interpretation of sensory input
• corticalization: wrinkling of the cortex
– allows a much larger area of cortical cells to
exist in the small space inside the skull
Cerebral Hemispheres
• cerebral hemispheres: the two sections of

the cortex on the left and right sides of the
brain
• corpus callosum: thick band of neurons
that connects the right and left cerebral
hemispheres
Figure 2.14 The Lobes of the Brain
Four Lobes of the Brain
• occipital lobe: section of the brain located

at the rear and bottom of each cerebral
hemisphere containing the visual centers
of the brain
– primary visual cortex: processes visual
information from the eyes
– visual association cortex: identifies and
makes sense of visual information
• parietal lobes
– sections of the brain located at the top and
back of each cerebral hemisphere containing
the centers for touch, taste, and temperature
sensations
– somatosensory cortex: area of neurons
running down the front of the parietal lobes
 responsible for processing information from the
skin and internal body receptors for touch,
temperature, body position, and possibly taste
Figure 2.15 The Motor and Somatosensory Cortex
• temporal lobes: areas of the cortex located

just behind the temples containing the
neurons responsible for the sense of
hearing and meaningful speech
– primary auditory cortex: processes auditory
information from the ears
– auditory association cortex: identifies and
makes sense of auditory information
• frontal lobes: areas of the cortex located in

the front and top of the brain; responsible
for higher mental processes and decision
making as well as the production of fluent
speech
– motor cortex: section of the frontal lobe
located at the back; responsible for sending
motor commands to the muscles of the
somatic nervous system
Association Areas of Cortex
LO 2.10 Parts of Cortex Responsible for Higher Thought
• association areas: areas within each lobe

of the cortex responsible for the
coordination and interpretation of
information, as well as higher mental
processing
• Broca’s aphasia: condition resulting from

damage to Broca’s area (usually in left
frontal lobe)
– causes the affected person to be unable to
speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to
speak haltingly
• Wernicke’s aphasia: condition resulting

from damage to Wernicke’s area (usually
in left temporal lobe)
– causes the affected person to be unable to
understand or produce meaningful language
Split-Brain Research
LO 2.11 Differences between the Left and Right Sides of the Brain
• Cerebrum: the upper part of the brain

consisting of the two hemispheres and the
structures that connect them
Split-Brain Research
• Split-Brain Research
– study of patients with severed
corpus callosum
– involves sending messages to
only one side of the brain
– demonstrates right and left
brain specialization
Results of Split-Brain Research
• left side of the brain

– seems to control language, writing, logical thought,
analysis, and mathematical abilities
– processes information sequentially, and enables one to
speak
• right side of the brain
– controls emotional expression, spatial perception,
recognition of faces, patterns, melodies, and emotions
– it processes information globally and cannot influence
speech
END OF CHAPTER 2
Exercises
LO 2.1
The entire nervous system is divided into two major parts.

What are they?
1. Peripheral and somatic

2. Central and peripheral
3. Somatic and autonomic
4. Sympathetic and parasympathetic
62
LO 2.1
The entire nervous system is divided into two major parts.

What are they?
1. Peripheral and somatic

2. Central and peripheral (p. 56)
3. Somatic and autonomic
4. Sympathetic and parasympathetic
63
LO 2.1
The part of the neuron responsible for carrying the neural

message from one end to the other is the:
1. Soma.
2. Dendrite.
3. Axon.
4. Glial cell.
5. Myelin.
64
LO 2.1
The part of the neuron responsible for carrying the neural

message from one end to the other is the:
1. Soma.
2. Dendrite.
3. Axon. (pp. 46-47)
4. Glial cell.
5. Myelin.
65
LO 2.1
________ is a fatty substance that forms a protective

coating around the axon of a neuron.
1. Dendrite
2. Soma
3. The terminal branch
4. Neurilemma
5. Myelin
66
LO 2.1
________ is a fatty substance that forms a protective

coating around the axon of a neuron.
1. Dendrite
2. Soma
3. The terminal branch
4. Neurilemma
5. Myelin (p. 48)
67
LO 2.1
When an action potential occurs, _______ ions come into a

section of the axon to make it more positive.
1. sodium
2. chloride
3. neurotransmitter
4. potassium
5. hydrogen
68
LO 2.1
When an action potential occurs, _______ ions come into a

section of the axon to make it more positive.
1. sodium (p. 48)

2. chloride
3. neurotransmitter
4. potassium
5. hydrogen
69
LO 2.2
The gap between neurons is called a(n):
1. Synapse.
2. Receptor.
3. Threshold.
4. Axon terminal.
70
LO 2.2
The gap between neurons is called a(n):
1. Synapse. (p. 51)

2. Receptor.
3. Threshold.
4. Axon terminal.
71
LO 2.2
_________ are sections on a dendrite onto which

neurotransmitters attach so a message can be
received by a neuron.
1. Synapse vesicles
2. Synaptic gap
3. Receptor sites
4. Action potentials
5. Resting potentials
72
LO 2.2
_________ are sections on a dendrite onto which

neurotransmitters attach so a message can be
received by a neuron.
1. Synapse vesicles
2. Synaptic gap
3. Receptor sites (p. 51)
4. Action potentials
5. Resting potentials
73
LO 2.2
A neurotransmitter that is generally excitatory and involved

with memory is called:
1. Serotonin.
2. GABA.
3. Glutamate.
4. Acetylcholine.
5. Norepinephrine.
74
LO 2.2
A neurotransmitter that is generally excitatory and involved

with memory is called:
1. Serotonin.
2. GABA.
3. Glutamate.
4. Acetylcholine. (p. 52)
5. Norepinephrine.
75
LO 2.2
_______ is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps

reduce anxiety by binding to the same receptor sites that
are affected by tranquilizers and alcohol.
1. Serotonin
2. GABA
3. Acetylcholine
4. Glutamate
5. Dopamine
76
LO 2.2
_______ is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps

reduce anxiety by binding to the same receptor sites that
are affected by tranquilizers and alcohol.
1. Serotonin
2. GABA (p. 53)
3. Acetylcholine
4. Glutamate
5. Dopamine
77
LO 2.2
The ___________ nervous system is made up of the brain

and spinal cord.
1. peripheral
2. autonomic
3. somatic
4. parasympathetic
5. central
78
LO 2.2
The ___________ nervous system is made up of the brain

and spinal cord.
1. peripheral
2. autonomic
3. somatic
4. parasympathetic
5. central (p. 56)
79
LO 2.3
While jogging, you notice a shiny object on the ground,

reach down, and pick it up. Information about the
object reached your brain by way of __________, and your
hand was commanded to reach down by __________.
1. motor neurons; motor neurons

2. interneurons; interneurons
3. sensory neurons; motor neurons
4. motor neurons; sensory neurons
80
LO 2.3
While jogging, you notice a shiny object on the ground,

reach down, and pick it up. Information about the
object reached your brain by way of __________, and your
hand was commanded to reach down by __________.
1. motor neurons; motor neurons

2. interneurons; interneurons
3. sensory neurons; motor neurons (p. 57)
4. motor neurons; sensory neurons
81
LO 2.4
Which section of the nervous system is responsible for

calming the body after a stressful response?
1. Sympathetic
2. Central
3. Parasympathetic
4. Autonomic
5. Sensory neurons
82
LO 2.4
Which section of the nervous system is responsible for

calming the body after a stressful response?
1. Sympathetic
2. Central
3. Parasympathetic (p. 62)
4. Autonomic
5. Sensory neurons
83
LO 2.5
_________ is a hormone implicated in sleep-wake cycles.
1. Insulin
2. Melatonin
3. Cortisol
4. Glucagons
5. Thyroxin
84
LO 2.5
_________ is a hormone implicated in sleep-wake cycles.
1. Insulin
2. Melatonin (p. 65)
3. Cortisol
4. Glucagons
5. Thyroxin
85
LO 2.7
This section of the brain is located at the top of the spinal

column and is involved with life-sustaining functions such
as heart rate, respiration, and swallowing.
1. Pons
2. Reticular formation
3. Medulla
4. Thalamus
5. Hypothalamus
86
LO 2.7
This section of the brain is located at the top of the spinal

column and is involved with life-sustaining functions such
as heart rate, respiration, and swallowing.
1. Pons
3. Medulla (p. 72)
4. Thalamus
5. Hypothalamus
87
LO 2.7
A patient in a hospital has difficulty controlling fine motor

movement, coordinating simple movements that are
involved in more complex movements (e.g., walking), and
has difficulty with balance. Which brain area has most likely
been damaged?
2. Cerebellum
3. Medulla
4. Pons
5. Thalamus
88
LO 2.7
A patient in a hospital has difficulty controlling fine motor

movement, coordinating simple movements that are
involved in more complex movements (e.g., walking), and
has difficulty with balance. Which brain area has most likely
been damaged?
2. Cerebellum (p.73)
3. Medulla
4. Pons
5. Thalamus
89
LO 2.8
Thought of as the master gland of the endocrine system,

the action of the __________ gland is controlled by a
small structure in the brain.
1. Hypothalamus
2. Thyroid
3. Pancreas
4. Pituitary
90
LO 2.8
Thought of as the master gland of the endocrine system,

the action of the __________ gland is controlled by a
small structure in the brain.
1. hypothalamus
2. thyroid
3. pancreas
4. pituitary (p. 63)
91
LO 2.8
The __________ is involved with responses related to fear

and allows people to respond to danger quickly, sometimes
before even being consciously aware that it exists.
1. amygdala
2. thalamus
3. hypothalamus
4. hippocampus
5. pons
92
LO 2.8
The __________ is involved with responses related to fear

and allows people to respond to danger quickly, sometimes
before even being consciously aware that it exists.
1. amygdala (p. 75)

2. thalamus
3. hypothalamus
4. hippocampus
5. pons
93
LO 2.9
Which area of the brain is responsible for higher mental

functions, such as planning, personality, memory, and
decision making?
1. Temporal lobes
2. Parietal lobes
3. Frontal lobes
4. Occipital lobes
5. Motor cortex
94
LO 2.9
Which area of the brain is responsible for higher mental

functions, such as planning, personality, memory, and
decision making?
1. Temporal lobes
2. Parietal lobes
3. Frontal lobes (p. 78)
4. Occipital lobes
5. Motor cortex
95
LO 2.10
________ is an association area located in the left

temporal lobe, and is responsible for understanding the
meaning of language.
1. Broca’s area
2. Wernicke’s area
3. The somatosensory cortex
4. The corpus callosum
5. The motor cortex
96
LO 2.10
________ is an association area located in the left

temporal lobe, and is responsible for understanding the
meaning of language.
1. Broca’s area
2. Wernicke’s area (p. 80)
3. The somatosensory cortex
4. The corpus callosum
5. The motor cortex
97
LO 2.11
The area of the brain that connects the two cerebral

hemispheres and is often severed in split brain patients is
called the:
1. Temporal lobe.
2. Parietal lobe.
3. Occipital lobe.
4. Frontal lobe.
5. Corpus callosum.
98
LO 2.11
The area of the brain that connects the two cerebral

hemispheres and is often severed in split brain patients is
called the:
1. Temporal lobe.
2. Parietal lobe.
3. Occipital lobe.
4. Frontal lobe.
5. Corpus callosum. (p. 82)
99

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CHAPTER 2

the biological perspective

• Glial cells are grey fatty cells that:

• Myelin: fatty substances produced by

• Ions: charged particles

• All-or-none: a neuron either fires

• Sending the message to other cells

• Synaptic vesicles: sack-like structures

• synapse/synaptic gap: microscopic fluid-filled

• receptor sites: holes in the surface of the

• Neurons must be turned ON and OFF

• reuptake: process by which

• Central nervous system (CNS): part of the

• Sensory neuron: a neuron that carries

• Interneuron: a neuron found in the center

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): all

• Somatic nervous system (cont’d)

• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

• Endocrine glands: glands that secrete

• pituitary gland: gland located in the brain that

• gonads: the sex glands; secrete hormones that

– reticular formation (RF): area of neurons

• Limbic system: a group of several brain

• Limbic System (cont’d)

• Limbic System (cont’d)

• cortex: outermost covering of the brain

• cerebral hemispheres: the two sections of

• occipital lobe: section of the brain located

• temporal lobes: areas of the cortex located

• frontal lobes: areas of the cortex located in

• association areas: areas within each lobe

• Broca’s aphasia: condition resulting from

• Wernicke’s aphasia: condition resulting

• Cerebrum: the upper part of the brain

• left side of the brain

The entire nervous system is divided into two major parts.

1. Peripheral and somatic

The entire nervous system is divided into two major parts.

1. Peripheral and somatic

The part of the neuron responsible for carrying the neural

The part of the neuron responsible for carrying the neural

________ is a fatty substance that forms a protective

________ is a fatty substance that forms a protective

When an action potential occurs, _______ ions come into a

When an action potential occurs, _______ ions come into a

1. sodium (p. 48)

The gap between neurons is called a(n):

The gap between neurons is called a(n):

1. Synapse. (p. 51)

_________ are sections on a dendrite onto which

_________ are sections on a dendrite onto which

A neurotransmitter that is generally excitatory and involved

A neurotransmitter that is generally excitatory and involved

_______ is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps

_______ is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps

The ___________ nervous system is made up of the brain

The ___________ nervous system is made up of the brain

While jogging, you notice a shiny object on the ground,

1. motor neurons; motor neurons

While jogging, you notice a shiny object on the ground,

1. motor neurons; motor neurons

Which section of the nervous system is responsible for