Pitot-Static System • Consists of Three Instruments and Related Components: • Air Speed Indicator • Altimeter • Vertical Speed Indicator • All about pressures
Pitot-Static System • Uses pitot tube to sense total air pressure (dynamic + static) • Static port to sense the static pressure within the dynamic flow
Altimeter • Only instrument to show altitude • Most vital • Uses an aneroid wafer to hold ISA pressure • Senses the difference between the outside static pressure and the pressure in the aneroid wafer • Difference is transmitted through gears to indicate altitude above ISA
Density Altitude • Density of a medium is affected by the temperature • Think of molasses: is it harder or easier when it is warm? • Density of Air has a direct effect on: • Lift • Prop Efficiency • Engine Power Output • The 3 H’s: • High • Hot • Humid
Density Altitude • Density of a medium is affected by the temperature • Think of molasses: is it harder or easier when it is warm? • Density of Air has a direct effect on: • Lift • Prop Efficiency • Engine Power Output • The 3 H’s: • High • Hot • Humid
Calculating Density Altitude • To calculate Density Altitude: • DA = PA + (120 x (OAT °C– ISA temperature °C))
Note: ISA refers to the temperature it should be at the local altitude
under standard temperature conditions. Example, sea level = 15°C, 6000 feet = 3°C. (use the temperature lapse rate of 2°C per 1000’ increase in altitude)
Hazards of Pressure • High to low, look out below • Go from High to Low pressure • Difference between static and reference pressure in the wafer becomes larger and causes an increase in altitude • The pilot will view this disturbance and descend which places him at a lower true altitude and consequently, a lower absolute altitude
Hazards of Temperature • Hot to cold, look out below • Go from Hot area to Cold area • Same pressure sensed by the altimeter will occur at a lower true altitude • Places the airplane at a lower absolute altitude • The atmosphere compresses (contracts) when cold
Hazard Remedies • Update altimeter settings frequently as practical through nearest weather or controller • Don’t forget: 1” Hg variation = 1000 feet difference. • Not easily noticeable in flight because the pilot steadily decreases/increases true altitude while the altimeter is held constant • Check altimeter prior to flight: 75 feet
Vertical Speed Indicator • Shows a climb or descent rate • Instrument Relies upon static pressure and is used to sense a change in pressure • Compares instantaneous reference of static pressure within a diaphragm to a delayed reference of static pressure within the case • Trend information: Initial indication can be used to make minor corrections during flight • Rate Information: Shows a stabilized rate of change in altitude
Vertical Speed Indicator • The case contains a diaphragm connected directly to the static line • The case is connected to the static line through a calibrated leak
Airspeed Indicator • Utilizes both the pitot tube and the static port • Supplies two pressures: Ram and Static • References the two against each other to show difference • Difference is read in Knots • Most susceptible to blocks, consider a pitot tube cover
Types of Airspeed • Indicated: Direct from instrument. No compensation for errors (KIAS) • Calibrated: KIAS corrected for instrument installation error (KCAS) • Equivalent: KCAS corrected for compressibility effects (EAS) • True Airspeed: EAS corrected for temperature and altitude (TAS) • Groundspeed: Speed above the ground (GS) • Boat Analogy
Airspeed Indicator Markings • White Arc: Flap Operating Range • Green Arc: Normal Operating Range • Yellow Arc: Cautionary Range (Smooth air only) • Red Line: Never Exceed Speed
Airspeed Instrument Check • Should read 0 or slightly moving in a strong headwind • Checked for function on the takeoff roll • Abort takeoff if no indication on takeoff roll
Blocked Static System • Altimeter Stays Frozen • VSI remains zero as it cannot sense a differential • Airspeed Indicator will give inaccurate readings • Will act as an altimeter • Why is this dangerous? • Think too fast on approach, inducing a stall
Gyroscopic Principles • Rigidity in Space • Newton’s First: Object at rest stays at rest • Allows a basketball player to spin a ball on the tip of his finger • Spin up a gyro, use it as a reference to identify deviations from the original rotational plane • Precession • Turning/Tilting characteristic • Force applied, realized 90 degrees in the direction gyro is spinning • Friction/External Forces can cause a gyro to wander from original location
Vacuum System • Consists of Two Instruments and Related Components: • Attitude Indicator • Heading Indicator (Directional Gyro) • All about spinning wheels
Attitude Indicator • Provides Pitch and Bank information • Gyro spins on a horizontal plane • Gyro moves in the roll / pitch axes and attached to a card that faces the pilot • Card has horizon, pitch and bank information on it • Plane is really moving around the gyro
Heading Indicator • Heading information without the nuisance of compass errors • Gyro stays in a vertical plane • Is subject to errors cause by friction at about 15 degrees per hour
Electrical Gyroscopic Instruments • One Instruments is powered by Electricity supplied by the Battery: • Turn Coordinator • Still operates on the same principles as vacuum system
Turn Coordinator / Slip-Skid Indicator • Instrument relies on controlled precession in order to indicate rate of turn • Mounting of the gyro allows to sense both roll rate and turn rate • Reacts to movement about horizontal plane as aft pressure increases • Powered by an electric motor • Slip and Skid indicator indicates Yaw • Maintain coordinated flight (perpendicular to relative wind)
How does the TC Work? • Uses principle of precession • Yaw from turn causes force on side of gyro • Force is translated 90 deg in direction of spin, which rolls the gyro and mini airplane or needle
Compass Errors - Variation • The difference between true and magnetic north • Aeronautical charts referenced to true • Runways aligned with magnetic • Variation needs to be taken into consideration
Compass Errors - Deviation • Any error caused by a magnetic field other than the earths • This could be a battery, magneto, alternator, or other electromagnetic disturbance • When a mechanic aligns the aircraft with known magnetic headings, he can denote deviation • Compass Deviation Card
Magnetic Dip • Occurs when lines of flux dip into the earth over the poles • Compass has a dip compensating weight • Weight is the cause of northerly turning errors • Also the cause of acceleration errors
Acceleration Error • On an East or West Heading • Acceleration indicates a turn to the North • Deceleration (or negative acceleration) indicates a turn to the south • ANDS
Oscillation Error • Combination of all the errors results in small movements, or swings in the compass indications • Why we use the heading indicator in IMC
Digital Flight Instruments • Newer Aircraft include a PFD and MFD • Primary Flight Display and Multi-Function Display • Both integrate all of the engine parameter and flight instruments into two large, panel mounted screens
Required Instruments for Flight – 91.205 • Changes for day and night • ATOMATOFLAMES Acronym – day • FLAPS - Night • Read and Highlight the Regulation • MEMORIZE!
ELT Requirements – 91.207 • Batteries to be replaced: • 1 hour of cumulative use • 50% of useful life • Does not apply: • Aircraft engaged in training if within 50 miles • Agricultural • Not carrying more than one person
Inoperative Instruments – 91.213 • Does an MEL Exist? • May be without MEL if: • Non-turbine • Not part of ATOMATOFLAMES or FLAPS • Option 1: Remove from the Aircraft, adjust maintenance records • Option 2: Deactivate and placard inoperative • Both options require that PIC make safety determination • Final Option: Special Flight Permit