Geologi Sumberdaya Mineral

TKG 3229 (2011) – 3 SKS

Endapan Mineral (Logam) oleh Proses-Proses

Magmatik (Magmatic Processes)

Dr. Lucas Donny Setijadji

Laboratorium Sumberdaya Mineral
Departemen Teknik Geologi
Universitas Gadjah Mada

Yogyakarta, April 2016

Klasifikasi Genetik Endapan Mineral (Logam)
(Evans, 1993)
1. Internal Processes
– Magmatic crystallisation
• Diamonds in kimberlites, feldspar in pegmatites
– Magmatic segregation
• Fractional crystallisation
• Liquation
– Hydrothermal processes
– Lateral secretion
– Metamorphic processes
2. Surface processes
– Exhalative processes
– Residual processes
– Supergene enrichments
– Mechanical accumulation - Sedimentary precipitation
 Teori pembentukan

Teori Proses alamiah

Kristalisasi magma Presipitasi mineral bijih sebagai komponen utama

atau minor dari batuan beku, seperti endapan intan
pada kimberlit, REE pada karbonatit di Zimbabwe

Segregasi magma Separasi akibat kristalisasi sebagian dan proses yang

berhubungan selama diferensiasi magma, seperti
lapisan kromit, Bushveld complex, Afrika Selatan
Liquasi, ketidakbercampuran cairan. Pelepasan
sulfida, sulfida-oksida, atau lelehan oksida dari
magma, yang terakumulasi pada di bawah lelehan
silikat, seperti endapan Cu-Ni di Sudbury, Canada
Igneous Processes
• Primary minerals throughout rock: if the mineral is rare enough,
like diamonds or really large crystals of quartz, the mere occurrence
of a mineral may be significant enough to warrant mining.
– Diamonds and gems and large crystals in pegmatites fall into this
rare category.

• Mineral Settling: In a fluid magma, early-formed crystals can

settle out; dense, to bottom; light, to top. This can often occur in
gabbroic intrusions. Deposits: chromite, magnetite, platinum.

• Magmatic Segregation
–As a magma cools, it may separate into two immiscible
components.
–In some mafic/ultramafic magmatic segregation deposits, one is
siliceous and the other is sulfide or oxide rich. The denser sulfide
or oxide fluid settles to the bottom of the intrusion and solidifies.
Deposits: nickel, copper
– More often, an aqueous phase separates out, causing the
freezing point of the silicic magma to drop suddenly (origin of
most porphyries). The resulting metasomatic fluids may be highly
enriched in ore-forming elements and can form hydrothermal
deposits.
Mineral Settling
Mineral Fractionalization in a Magma Chamber
Endapan kromit (magnetit, platinum) di Kompleks intrusi
Bushveld, Afrika Selatan
 Magmatic processes

• Fractional crystallization: separates ore and non-ore minerals

according to their crystallization temperature. As early crystallizing
minerals form, they incorporate certain elements, some of which are
metals. These crystals may settle onto the bottom of the intrusion,
concentrating ore minerals there. Chromite and magnetite are ore
minerals that form in this way.

• Liquid immiscibility: sulfide ores containing copper, nickel or platinum

may form from this process. As a magma changes, parts of it may
separate from the main body of magma. Two liquids that will not mix are
called immiscible; oil and water are an example. In magmas, sulfides may
separate and sink below the silicate-rich part of the intrusion or be
injected into the rock surrounding it. These deposits are found in mafic
and ultramafic rocks.
 Magmatic Deposits
• Magmatic Deposits are so named because they are
genetically linked with the evolution of magmas emplaced
into the crust (either continental or oceanic) and are spatially
found within rock types derived from the crystallization of
such magmas.
• The most important magmatic deposits are restricted to
mafic and ultramafic rocks which represent the
crystallization products of basaltic or ultramafic liquids.

• The mineral deposit types include:

1. Chromite Deposits,
2. Nickel-Copper Deposits
3. Platinum Group Metals (PGM)
 Chromite Deposits
• Chromite deposits are the end product of the separation of solid phases (Cr-rich
spinets, (Fe, Mg) (Al, Cr. Fe) 2O4) from a liquid and their accumulation into chromite-
rich layers. The processes involved in the formation of chromite layers are fractional
crystallization and gravity settling. Chromite crystallizes into mineral grains within
the silicate liquid and, because they are heavier than the liquid, they sink to form a
cummulate layer at the base of the intrusive.
• There are two main types of chromite deposits:
1. Stratiform chromite deposits consist of laterally persistent chromite-rich
layers (a few mm to several m thick) alternating with silicate layers. The
silicate layers include ultramafic and mafic rocks such as dunite, peridotite,
pyroxenite and a variety of others, less commonly gabbroic rocks. They are
generally found within basal portions of mafic-ultramafic layered intrusions of
Archean age such as the Bushveld Complex in South Africa. These deposits
contain substantial reserves of poor-quality chromite (average 10.7% Cr203).
2. Podiform chromite deposits consist of pod to pencil-like, irregularly shaped
massive chromite bodies and they are predominantly found within dunitic
(olivine-rich) portions of ophiolite complexes. The rocks associated with
podiform chromites are generally referred to as "Alpine-type" peridotites and
they are usually found along major fault zones within mountain belts.
Bushveld Igneous Complex
Bushveld Stratigraphy
Merensky Reef

Gabbroic anorthosite

Critical Zone

Chromitite
Anorthosite

Lower Zone
Pyroxenite

Harzburgite
 Merensky Reef

Chromite Anorthosite

Merensky Reef

Pyrrhotite + PGE minerals

A Model for the Emplacement of the Bushveld Complex
 Ni-Cu±Co Deposits
• Ni-Cu Deposits are the end of a magmatic process known as "liquid immiscibility''.
This process involves the separation from the parental magma of a sulphur-rich
liquid containing Fe-Ni-Cu. Upon cooling, the sulphur-rich liquid produces an
immiscible sulphide phase (droplets of sulphide liquid in silicate liquid, like oil in
water) from which minerals such as pyrrhotite (FeS), pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8, and
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) crystalize. Typical magmatic Ni-Cu deposits tend to occur in
embayments at or near the base of their intrusive hosts.
• They occur at the base of the intrusives because :
a. immiscible sulphide liquids are heavier than silicate liquids and therefore
sink to the bottom of the magma chamber and
b. without the presence of sulphur, metals such as Ni become incorporated
into silicate crystal structures, such as pyroxene. Ni-Cu deposits are found in
layered intrusions, stocks and ultramafic sills and flows. The largest deposits
are of Archean and Proterozoic age.
• The ore in Ni-Cu deposits can be massive, net-textured or disseminated. Typical
examples of Ni-Cu deposits include the Sudbury orebodies (layered intrusion
hosted), the Kambalda orebodies in Australia (ultramafic flow hosted) and the
orebodies in the Thompson District of Manitoba (ultramafic sill hosted).
 World’s Land Based Nickel Resources
and Primary Nickel Production
(Resources Distribution by Contained Nickel)

World Ni Resource on Land Primary Ni Production

28%
Sulfide 42%
Laterite
Laterite Sulfide

58%
72%

Mt Resource % Ni Mt Ni % of Total
Sulfide 10500 0.58 62 27.8%
Laterite 12600 1.28 161 72.2%
Total 23100 0.97% 223 100
 LATERITE vs. SULPHIDE DEPOSITS

CUBA
PHILIPPINES

INDONESIA

NEW CALEDONIA

AUSTRALIA

LATERITES SULPHIDES
 Sulfide Nickel Deposits
• The Sudbury region of Ontario, Canada, produces
about 30% of the world's supply of nickel. The
Sudbury Basin deposit is theorized to have been
created by a meteorite impact event early in the
geologic history of Earth.
• Russia contains about 40% of the world's known
resources at the Norilsk deposit in Siberia. The
Russian mining company MMC Norilsk Nickel
obtains the nickel and the associated palladium for
world distribution.
 Nickel Sulfides:
Magmatic segregation

• Orthomagmatic copper-nickel-iron (-platinoid)

deposits associated with basic and ultrabasic rocks
(Evans, 1993)
• Nickel-copper sulfide ores formed by the sinking of
an immiscible sulfide liquid to the bottom of a
magma chamber or lava flow.
• Sulfides usually accumulate in hollows at the base
of the magma forming conformable sheets or
lenses
Deposit Model
 Types of Basic – Ultrabasic Rocks producing
Nickel Sulfides (Evans, 1993)
• Noritic rocks intruded into an area that has
suffered a catastrophic release of energy, e.g.
an astrobleme (Sudbury);
• Intrusions associated with flood basalts in
intracontinental rift zones (Noril'sk-Talnakh,
Duluth);
• Komatiitic and tholeiitic flows and intrusions in
greenstone belts (Kambalda, Agnew,
Pechenga).
Nickel sulfides ores (Evans, 1993)
Kambalda, West Australia

Section of a deposit
Geological Map Evans (1993)
Norils, Rusia (Evans, 1993)
The Norilsk Ni-Cu Deposit
 A Model for the Norilsk Deposit

Magma saturates
in sulphide due to Flood basalts
decrease in fO2

Gabbro sill Gabbro sill

Sulphide Sulphide
Coal-bearing sediments Coal-bearing sediments
Limestones Limestones

Gabbroic magma
Magma dissolves
Evaporites high Evaporites
concentration of
sulphur

Limestones Limestones
Geology of the Sudbury Complex
Meteorite Impact Origin of the Sudbury Complex

Sudbury
Stratigraphy
Impact
Stratigraphy Melt

Sulphide concentrations
Sudbury Footwall-Type Deposit
 Sudbury Ni-Cu Ores

Inclusion Ore
Pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite
and peridotite inclusions
Chalcopyrite

Pyrrhotite

Pentlandite Massive Ore

Pyrrhotite
Pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8
_______________

Cu-Ni-PGE
Deposits of the
Duluth
Complex, NE
Minnesota
(Miller, 2013)
_______________
At continental rifting
1.1 billion years ago
 Tectonic and Magmatic
A. Rift Magmatism

Basalt
Gabbro Flows Evolution of the
Midcontinent Rift
Crust
Mantle
1,109-1,086 Ma
Mantle
Plume

B. Sediment Infilling Sandstone

1,090-900 Ma
C. Compression

1,000-900 Ma
Dominant Mineralogy
of Magmatic
Cu-Ni Sulfide Deposits

Pyrrhotite – FeS1-x
Chalcopyrite - CuFeS2
Pentlandite - (Fe,Ni)9S8
Bornite - Cu5FeS4
Talnakhite – Cu9(Fe,Ni)8S16
Chalcocite - Cu2S

Cobaltite - CoAsS
 PGM Deposits

• Platinum Group Metals (Platinum, Pt; Palladium, Pd; Iridium,

Ir; Rhodium, Rh; Osmium, Os; and Ruthenium, Ru) have
genetic affinities to both Ni-Cu-sulphides and chromites.
• However, while the fundamental processes involved in the
formation of Ni-Cu and chromite deposits are relatively
simple, the concentration and deposition of PGM appears to
be a not too well understood, diverse and multistage
process.
• Several lines of evidence indicate that PGM can
1. concentrate during high-temperature deposition of chromites,
2. be incorporated into immiscible liquids,
3. be remobilized and reconcentrated during metasomatic and
hydrothermal activity.
 PGM Deposits
• So far significant PGM production has come from:
1. The Merenski Reef of the Bushveld Complex in South
Africa,
2. The Ni-Cu deposits of the Noril'sk-Talnakh District in the
U.S.S.R.,
3. By-product of several Ni-Cu deposits (Sudbury, etc.),
4. Placers derived from zoned (Alaskan-type) ultramafic
intrusions (Columbia, Goodnews Bay, Tulameen) (Catatan:
placer PGM juga teridentifikasi di Pegunungan Meratus, Kalsel)
5. Metasomatic dunite pipes of the Bushveld Complex. The bulk
of present world production comes from the Bushveld and
Russian deposits and most presently known reserves are
within Merenski-type environments (Bushveld and Stillwater
Complexes).
 Merensky Reef

Chromite Anorthosite

Merensky Reef

Pyrrhotite + PGE minerals

 PGM Deposits
• The ores of the "Merenski" reef form thin (less than 1 m) but laterally persistent,
disseminated, sulphide-poor horizons within polycyclic mafic-ultramafic cumulate
sequences one-third of the way up from the base of the Bushveld intrusion. Principal
ore minerals are pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite, PGM sulphides, arsenides and
tellurides. The Noril'sk-Talnakh orebodies are essentially typical Ni-Cu deposits
containing anomalously high concentrations of PGM (6 g/tonne material).
• They occur at or near the base of complexely differentiated gabbro-dolerite
intrusions (50 to 350 m thick) emplaced during late Permian to Triassic time during
rifting of the Siberian platform. The sills are considered to be feeders to overlying
plateau basalts.
• The mineralogy of the ores include pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite and a great
variety of PGM minerals. Placers derived from Alaskan-type intrusions are the
results of the breakdown, transport and concentration of Pt-Fe alloys mainly
associated with Fe-rich chromite layers from the dunitic portions of thse complexes.
• The metasomatic dunite pipes of the Bushveld Complex played a significant role as
high-grade platinum producers during the early days of platinum mining in South
Africa. They consist of central zones of Fe-rich dunite enveloped by shells of dunite
and pyroxenite.
THE END