HOMEWORK IN AVTE 221 – 3C

Submitted by:
GROUP 1

Abejero, Carla Michelle R.

Asinas, Ryan Kevin C.
Gadon, Ronald M.
Macaraeg, Sebastian Gerard S.
Musni, Andrei D.
Palomo, Kevin Renon B.
Pascual, Elisha Danielle D.
Suarez, Maurice S.

Submitted to:
Ms. Pamela Bianca M. Palatino

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Discrete Diodes

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Discrete diodes

A diode is a two-terminal electrical component that

conducts current primarily in one direction. A discrete diode
means it is packaged by itself, as opposed to integrated diodes –
which are packaged together with other components.
Semiconductor diodes are normally one of the following four
types: grown junction, alloy, diffusion, or epitaxial growth.

These semiconductor diodes will be explained briefly

throughout the presentation.

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Grown Junction

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Grown-junction diode

Diodes of this type are formed during the crystal pulling

process. P and N-type impurities can be alternately added to the
molten semiconductor material in the crucible, which results in a
P-N junction, as shown when crystal is pulled. After slicing, the
larger area device can then be cut into a large number of smaller
area semiconductor diodes.

Though such diodes, because of larger area, are capable

of handling large currents but larger area also introduces more
capacitive effects, which are undesirable. Such diodes are used
for low frequencies.

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Grown-junction diode

In a grown junction method (the earliest technique

used), intrinsic semiconductor material and P-type impurities are
placed in a quartz container and heated until they melt.

A small semiconductor crystal, called a seed, is then

lowered into the molten mixture. The seed crystal is slowly
rotated and withdrawn from the molten mixture slowly enough
to allow the molten mixture to cling to the seed.

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Grown-junction diode

The molten mixture, clinging to the seed crystal, cools

and rehardens, assuming the same crystalline characteristics as
the seed. As the seed crystal is withdrawn, it is alternately doped
with N- and P-type impurities.

Doping is the process of adding impurities to pure

semiconductor crystals to increase the IF number of free
electrons or the number of holes. This creates N and P layers in
the crystal as it is grown. The resulting crystal is then sliced into
many P–N sections.

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Grown-junction diode

The molten mixture, clinging to the seed crystal, cools

and rehardens, assuming the same crystalline characteristics as
the seed. As the seed crystal is withdrawn, it is alternately doped
with N- and P-type impurities.

Doping is the process of adding impurities to pure

semiconductor crystals to increase the IF number of free
electrons or the number of holes. This creates N and P layers in
the crystal as it is grown. The resulting crystal is then sliced into
many P–N sections.

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Alloy

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Alloy Junction

The germanium alloy-junction transistor, or alloy

transistor, was an early type of bipolar junction transistor,
developed at General Electric and RCA in 1951 as an
improvement over the earlier
grown-junction transistor.

The usual construction of an alloy-junction transistor is a

germanium crystal forming the base, with emitter and collector
alloy beads fused on opposite sides. Indium and antimony were
commonly used to form the alloy junctions on a bar of N-type
germanium. The collector junction pellet would be about 50 mils
(thousandths of an inch) in diameter, and the emitter pellet
about 20 mils.

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Alloy Junction

The base region would be on the order of 1 mil (0.001

inches, 25 um) thick. There were several types of improved alloy-
junction transistors developed over the years that they were
manufactured.

All types of alloy-junction transistors became obsolete in

the early 1960s, with the introduction of the planar transistor
which could be mass-produced easily while alloy-junction
transistors had to be made individually. The first germanium
planar transistors had much worse characteristics than alloy-
junction germanium transistors of the period, but they cost
much less, and the characteristics of planar transistors improved
very rapidly, quickly exceeding those of all earlier germanium
transistors.

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Alloy Junction

A junction diode made by placing a pill of doped alloying

material on a semiconductor material and heating until the
molten alloy melts a portion of the semiconductor, resulting in a
pn junction when the dissolved semiconductor recrystallizes.
Also known as fused-junction diode.

A junction produced by alloying one or more impurity

metals to a semiconductor to form a p or n region, depending on
the impurity used. Also known as fused junction.

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Alloy Junction

Such a diode is formed by first placing a P- type impurity

(a tiny pellet of aluminium or some other P- type impurity) into
the surface of an N-type crystal and heating the two until
liquefaction occurs where the two materials meet. An alloy will
result that on cooling will give a P-N junction at the boundary of
the alloy substrate.

Similarly, an N-type impurity may be placed into the

surface of a P- type crystal and the two are heated until
liquefaction occurs. Alloy type diodes have a high current rating
and large PIV (peak inverse voltage) rating. The junction
capacitance is also large, due to the large junction area.

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Alloy Junction

A junction diode made by placing a pill of doped alloying mate

rial on a semiconductor material and heating until the
molten alloy melts a portion of the semiconductor, resulting in a pn ju
nction when the dissolved semiconductor
recrystallizes. Also known as fused-junction diode.

Such a diode is formed by first placing a P- type impurity (a

tiny pellet of aluminum or some other P- type impurity) into the
surface of an N-type crystal and heating the two until liquefaction
occurs where the two materials meet. An alloy will result that on
cooling will give a P-N junction at the boundary of the alloy substrate.
Similarly, an N-type impurity may be placed into the surface of a P-
type crystal and the two are heated until liquefaction occurs. Alloy
type diodes have a high current rating and large PIV (peak inverse
voltage) rating. The junction capacitance is also large, due to the large
junction area.
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Diffusion

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Diffusion

It is a process resulting from random motion of

molecules by which there is a net flow of matter from a region of
high concentration to a region of low concentration. A familiar
example is the perfume of a flower that quickly permeates the
still air of a room.

A diffusion is a process in physics. Some particles are

dissolved in a glass of water. At first, the particles are all near
one top corner of the glass. If the particles randomly move
around ("diffuse") in the water, they eventually become
distributed randomly and uniformly from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration, and organized
(diffusion continues, but with no net flux).

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Diffusion

It is a process resulting from random motion of

molecules by which there is a net flow of matter from a region of
high concentration to a region of low concentration. A familiar
example is the perfume of a flower that quickly permeates the
still air of a room.

A diffusion is a process in physics. Some particles are

dissolved in a glass of water. At first, the particles are all near
one top corner of the glass. If the particles randomly move
around ("diffuse") in the water, they eventually become
distributed randomly and uniformly from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration, and organized
(diffusion continues, but with no net flux).

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Diffusion

Diffusion from a microscopic and macroscopic point of view.

Initially, there are solute molecules on the left side of a barrier (purple
line) and none on the right. The barrier is removed, and the solute
diffuses to fill the whole container.

Top: A single molecule moves around randomly. Middle: With

more molecules, there is a statistical trend that the solute fills the
container more and more uniformly. Bottom: With an enormous
number of solute molecules, all randomness is gone.

The solute appears to move smoothly and deterministically

from high-concentration areas to low-concentration areas. There is no
microscopic force pushing molecules rightward, but there appears to
be one in the bottom panel. This apparent force is called an entropic
force.
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Three dimensional rendering of diffusion of purple dye in water.

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Diffusion

Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or atoms

from a region of high concentration (or high chemical potential)
to a region of low concentration (or low chemical potential) as a
result of random motion of the molecules or atoms. Diffusion is
driven by a gradient in chemical potential of the diffusing
species.

A gradient is the change in the value of a quantity e.g.

concentration, pressure, or temperature with the change in
another variable, usually distance. A change in concentration
over a distance is called a concentration gradient, a change in
pressure over a distance is called a pressure gradient, and a
change in temperature over a distance is a called a temperature
gradient.

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Diffusion

The word diffusion derives from the Latin word,

diffundere, which means "to spread way out".

A distinguishing feature of diffusion is that it depends on

particle random walk, and results in mixing or mass transport
without requiring directed bulk motion. Bulk motion, or bulk
flow, is the characteristic of advection. The term convection is
used to describe the combination of both transport phenomena.

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Diffusion

The process of solid diffusion starts with formation of

layer of an acceptor impurity on an N- type substrate and
heating the two until the impurity diffuses into the substrate to
form the P-type layer, as illustrated in figure. A large P-N junction
is divided into parts by cutting process. Metallic contacts are
made for connecting anode and cathode leads.

In the process of gaseous diffusion instead of layer

formation of an acceptor impurity, an N- type substrate is placed
in a gaseous atmosphere of acceptor impurities and then
heated. The impurity diffuses into the substrate to form P- type
layer on the N- type substrate..

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Diffusion

Though, the diffusion process requires more time than

the alloy process but it is relatively inexpensive, and can be very
accurately controlled. The diffusion technique leads itself to the
simultaneous fabrication of many hundreds of diodes on one
small disc of semiconductor material and is most commonly
used in the manufacture of semiconductor diodes. This
technique is also used in the production of transistors and ICs
(integrated circuits).

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Epitaxial Growth

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Epitaxial Growth

Epitaxyl is defined as the oriented over growth of film

material and typically refers to the growth of single crystal films.
Homo epitaxy is the epitaxial growth of a deposit on a
substrate of the same material. Heteroepitaxy is the epitaxial
growth of a deposit on a substrate of a different
material. Epitaxial growth requires some degree of mobility of
the atoms and nuclei on the surface.

An “epitaxial temperature” necessary for epitaxial

growth in specific systems and under specific deposition
conditions is sometimes specified.

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Epitaxial Growth

Single crystal overgrowth can be accomplished with large

mismatches in lattice parameters between the film and substrate,
either by keeping the thickness of the deposited material small so that
the mismatch can be taken up by straining the film lattice without
forming lattice defects “strained layer superlattice”, or by using a
“buffer” layer to grade the strains from the substrate to the film.

For example, thick single crystal SiC layers can be grown on

silicon by CVD techniques even though the lattice mismatch is large
(20%).This is accomplished by forming a buffer layer by first
carbonizing the silicon surface and then grading the composition from
the substrate to the film. However, in general, if the lattice mismatch is
large, the interface has a high density of dislocations and the resulting
film will be polycrystalline.
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Epitaxial Growth

Energetic adatom and low energy

ion bombardment during deposition can
be used as a partial substitute for
increased substrate temperature in
the epitaxial growth process. Carefully
controlled bombardment can lower the
temperature at which epitaxy can be
obtained.
This is probably due to increased surface
mobility of the adatom. Ion beams of the
depositing material (“film ions”) have also
been used to deposit epitaxial films.

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Epitaxial Growth

Oriented growth can be enhanced by

“seeding” of the substrate surface with oriented
nuclei. Such “seeds” can be formed by depositing a
small amount of material, heating the surface to
form isolated oriented grains, and then using these
grains as seeds for the deposition of an oriented film
at a lower temperature.

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Epitaxial Growth

A revolution in semiconductor device design has been

spawned by the invention of heterostructures, quantum wells,
superlattices and similar structures. These advanced structures
have led to significant improvement , in the performance of many
devices including lasers, light emitting diodes, detectors, and both
field effect and bipolar transistors.

Such structures can only be produced by epitaxial growth

processes. These applications place stringent demands on the
growth technique including high purity, low defect density, abrupt
interfaces for heterostructures and superlattices, controlled doping
profiles, economy (large scale with high yield, i.e. high uniformity
and reproducibility) and safe operation.

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Different Techniques for Epitaxial Growth

Several epitaxial techniques have been used for the growth of

epilayers of III-V, II-VI compound semiconductors and other
materials. The , prominent among these techniques are Liquid
Phase Epitaxy, Liquid Phase Electro-Epitaxy, Vapour Phase
Epitaxy, OrganoMetallic Vapour Phase Epitaxy, Molecular
Beam Epitaxy, Chemical Beam Epitaxy, Atomic Layer Epitaxy
etc.

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Liquid Phase Epitaxy
Liquid Phase Epitaxy is a versatile, flexible method to grow
thin layers of III-V, II-VI and IV-VI compounds for material
investigations and device applications. Recent developments
in the fabrication of the device structures like double
heterostructure laser diodes, pin-photodiodes, avalanche
photodiodes, Gunn diodes, integrated bipolar transistor-laser
circuits, pin-FET photoreceivers, multi-quantum well lasers
and rare earth doped injection lasers, have made liquid phase
epitaxial technique, a unique distinction among the other
epitaxial growth methods.
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Liquid phase epitaxy means the growth of thin films from

metallic solution on an oriented crystalline substrate. The
solvent element can either be a constituent of the growing
solid e.g. In or Ga, or it can be some other low melting metals
like Sn, Bi or Pb, which is incorporated into the solid only as a
dopant. The solvent contains a small quantity of solute e.g. As
in Ga for epitaxial growth of GaAs layers which is transported
towards the liquid-solid interface.

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Vapor Phase Epitaxy

Vapor Phase Epitaxy is one of the commonly used techniques
for the growth of III-V compound semiconductors. In this
technique, growth is carried out by vaporizing the source
material for III-V compounds; inorganic or organic materials
which react with the other materials to form the compound
semiconductors on the substrate. Growth is controlled by the
partial pressures of the each of the components of the source
materials.
Two different forms of the vapor phase epitaxial growth are (i)
chloride vapor phase epitaxy and (ii) hydride vapor phase
epitaxy.

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Molecular Beam Epitaxy

Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE), basically a technique of
vacuum evaporation is one of the oldest and easiest
techniques of depositing solid films. Although vacuum
evaporation was used as early as in the 1950s for preparing
semiconductors, epitaxial growth conditions were not realized
until improvements occurred in ultra high vacuum technology,
in the design and control ofthe sources and substrate cleaning
procedures. MBE has now become a versatile technique for
growing epitaxial thin films of semiconductors, metals and
superconductors

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Chemical Beam Epitaxy

Chemical Beam Epitaxy (CBE) is a possible breakthrough
technology for photovoltaic solar energy applications. In this
growth process, beams of compound chemicals directly
impinge onto a heated substrate surface. Under properly
controlled conditions, decomposition of the arriving chemicals
results in the incorporation of the desired elements to
produce the epitaxial film on a single crystalline substrate.

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Atomic Layer Epitaxy

Atomic Layer Epitaxy (ALE) is an attractive technique for the
fabrication of novels semiconductor devices e.g. deep
submicron devices, heterostructures, etc. This technique
utilizes either an MBE or Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
approach. In this technique, a monolayer of each of the
constituent atoms or molecule is laid down separately in place
of having a mixed flux at the substrate.
Conditions are established when the bonds are stable. For
example, in the growth of GaAs by ALE, a first layer of arsenic
is deposited on the substrate; the pressure and temperature
are such that As-As bonds cannot form, a monolayer ofarsenic
is deposited, and flux of gallium that reacts with the arsenic
layer, filling sites to complete a layer ofgallium and the
compound GaAs.

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