Block Codes

(Hamming codes / Cyclic Codes)

Hamming Codes
• Hamming codes are (n,k) linear codes having following properties
𝑛 = 2𝑞 − 1
𝑘 = 2𝑞 − 𝑞 − 1
𝑞 ≥ 3 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
• Parity bits:
• 𝑃1 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3
• 𝑃2 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4
• 𝑃1 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖4
• Code-word = 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 , 𝑖4 , 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3
Information words Codewords
0000 0000000
0001 0001011
0010 0010110
0011 0011101
0100 0100111
0101 0101100
0110 0110001
0111 0111010
1000 1000101
1001 1001110
1010 1010011
1011 1011000
1100 1100010
1101 1101001
1110 1110100
1111 1111111
Error checking in hamming codes
• Consider v = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , 𝑣4 , 𝑣5 , 𝑣6 , 𝑣7
• For error-checking find syndrome s = 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , 𝑠3
• 𝑠1 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + 𝑣5
• 𝑠2 = 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + 𝑣4 + 𝑣6
• 𝑠3 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣4 + 𝑣7
Error-syndrome mapping

error S
0000000 000
0000001 001
0000010 010
0000100 100
0001000 011
0010000 110
0100000 111
1000000 101
Hamming Coding and Decoding
• Example: Hamming (7,4) code incur single error, if v= 1011001, find
bits transmitted
• Solution:
• 𝑠1 = 1+0+1+0 = 0
• 𝑠2 = 0+1+1+0 = 0
• 𝑠3 = 1+0+1+1 = 1
• S = 001  error = 0000001
• Bits transmitted = v + error = 1011001 + 0000001 = 1011000
Cyclic Codes
• Cyclic code is a linear code that has the property that a cyclic shift on
any of its code-word produces another code-word.
• CW = {𝐶𝑛−1 , 𝐶𝑛−2 , 𝐶𝑛−3 ,………, 𝐶1 , 𝐶0 }
• CW = {𝐶𝑛−3 , 𝐶𝑛−4 , ……….., 𝐶0 , 𝐶𝑛−1 , 𝐶𝑛−2 } Shift left
• CW = {𝐶1 , 𝐶0 , 𝐶𝑛−1 ,………, 𝐶3 , 𝐶2 } Shift right
• Example (7,4) Hamming code
• 0011101 Left shift by two places results in 1110100 is also a CW
• 0011101 Right shift by two places results in 0100111 is also a CW
Polynomial Representation
• An n-bit (𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛−2 , 𝑎𝑛−3 , ………, 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 ) word can be represented by the
polynomial
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑥 𝑛−3 +……… + 𝑎1 𝑥 1 + 𝑎0 𝑥 0

• For example 0011101 can be written as

𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎6 𝑥 6 + 𝑎5 𝑥 5 + 𝑎4 𝑥 4 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 1 + 𝑎0 𝑥 0
𝑃 𝑥 = 0𝑥 6 + 0𝑥 5 + 1𝑥 4 + 1𝑥 3 + 1𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 1 + 1𝑥 0
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥4 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 1
• Degree of polynomial is the highest power of 𝑥 that has non-zero coefficient
• Mod-2 operations on polynomials (Add, Multiplication, Division)
Generator Polynomial Cyclic Encoding
• The polynomial which is used to generate all code-words

For CW = {𝐶𝑛−1 , 𝐶𝑛−2 , 𝐶𝑛−3 ,………, 𝐶1 , 𝐶0 }

𝐺 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝐶𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝐶𝑛−3 𝑥 𝑛−3 +……… + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶0 𝑥 0

• For the first non-zero code-word in (7,4) hamming code 0001011

𝐺 𝑥 = 𝑥3 + 𝑥 + 1
• To find new code-word multiply 𝐺 𝑥 with 𝑥
Non-Systematic Cyclic Encoding
• When information bits 𝑖 = (𝑖𝑛−1 , 𝑖𝑛−2 , 𝑖𝑛−3 , ………, 𝑖1 , 𝑖0 ) are given, then
first find 𝑖 𝑥
𝑖 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑖𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + 𝑖𝑛−3 𝑥 𝑛−3 +……… + 𝑖1 𝑥 + 𝑖0

• Code-word 𝐶 𝑥 = 𝑖 𝑥 ∗ 𝐺 𝑥
• Example: if i = (0101), find code-word CW
• 𝑖 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 1
• 𝐶 𝑥 = (𝑥 2 + 1)*(𝑥 3 +𝑥 + 1)
• 𝐶 𝑥 = 𝑥5 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥 + 1
• 𝐶 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0100111
Systematic Cyclic Encoding

• Step 01: Multiply 𝑖 𝑥 with 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘  𝑖 𝑥 *𝑥 𝑛−𝑘

• Step 02: Divide 𝑖 𝑥 *𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 by 𝐺 𝑥 to find remainder 𝑅 𝑥

• Step 03: Add 𝑅 𝑥 with 𝑖 𝑥 *𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 to find the code-word

CW = 𝑖 𝑥 *𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 + 𝑅 𝑥
Systematic Cyclic Encoding
• Example: For (7,4) if 𝑖 = (0101), find code-word CW
• 𝑖 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 1
• Step 01: 𝑖 𝑥 ∗𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 = (𝑥 2 + 1)*𝑥 3 = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 3
• Step 02: 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 3 / 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 + 1  𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑥 2
• Step 03: 𝑖 𝑥 ∗𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 + 𝑅 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 = 0101100
Decoding cyclic codes
• If the received word is 𝑣 𝑥
• Step 01: find syndrome polynomial 𝑆 𝑥 = 𝑅′ 𝑥 = 𝑣 𝑥 / 𝐺 𝑥
• Note: For error-free 𝑣 𝑥 = 𝐶 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑆 𝑥 = 𝑅′ 𝑥 = 0
𝑣 𝑥 = 𝐶 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑅′ 𝑥 = 𝑣 𝑥 / 𝐺 𝑥
⇒ 𝑅′ 𝑥 = (𝐶 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) / 𝐺 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 / 𝐺 𝑥

𝐶′ 𝑥 = 𝑣 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
Error- Syndrome table
error E(x) S(x)
0000000 0 0
0000001 1 1
0000010 𝑥 𝑥
0000100 𝑥2 𝑥2
0001000 𝑥3 𝑥+1
0010000 𝑥4 𝑥2 + 𝑥
0100000 𝑥5 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
1000000 𝑥6 𝑥2 + 1
 Decoding Cyclic codes
• Example: Decode the code-word 1010011 of (7,4) codes when error incurred
is 1000000
• Solution:
𝐶 𝑥 = 𝑥6 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥 + 1
𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥6
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑣 𝑥 = 𝐶 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 6 + 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 6
= 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0010011
Decoding: 𝑆 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓 𝑣 𝑥 / 𝐺 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1
From table 𝑆 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 1 corresponds to 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 6
So 𝐶 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑣 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 6 = 𝑥 6 + 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 + 1 = 1010011