Chapter 10

The Tools of Quality

S. Thomas Foster, Jr.

Boise State University
PowerPoint
prepared by
Dave Magee
University of Kentucky
Lexington Community College

©2004 Prentice-Hall
 Chapter Overview

• Improving the System

• The Plan-Do-Check-Act-Cycle
• Ishikawa’s Basic Tools of Quality
• The Seven New Tools for Improvement

Managing Quality: An Integrative Approach; 2nd Edition © 2004 Prentice-Hall Slide 10-2
 Improving the System
Slide 1 of 2

• Objective of the System

– To be successful, an organization must balance the
needs of its different functional areas around a coherent
business vision and strategy.
– The objective of the system is to satisfy the customer.
• Purpose of the Chapter
– In this chapter we introduce the basic seven tools of
quality, and the new seven tools.

Managing Quality: An Integrative Approach; 2nd Edition © 2004 Prentice-Hall Slide 10-3
 Improving the System
Slide 2 of 2

Quality System Model

Procedures

Plant & Legal

equipment requirements

Customer
People R&D

Technology

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 The Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle
Slide 1 of 2

• Plan phase
– involves identifying problems to be solved,
gathering data, doing data analysis, and
developing recommendations.
• Do phase
– involves implementing the solution on a trial
basis.

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 The Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle
Slide 2 of 2

• Check
– consists of a post-implementation study to
ascertain whether or not the implementation
resulted in the expected outcome.
• Act
– involves either adjusting the original
implementation because of problems resulting
from the changed or making the changes
permanent if the implementation was effecting
in making improvements.

Managing Quality: An Integrative Approach; 2nd Edition © 2004 Prentice-Hall Slide 10-6
 Logical Order for B7 Tools

Big Data Data Problem

Picture Collection Analysis Identification Priortization

Cause
Flow Check Pareto
Histograms &
Chart Sheet Analysis
Effect

Scatter
Diagrams

Control
Charts Figure 10.2

Managing Quality: An Integrative Approach; 2nd Edition © 2004 Prentice-Hall Slide 10-7
 Ishikawa’s Basic Tools of Quality
(B7)

Histogram Check Sheets

Pareto Charts Control Charts

Cause & Effect Flowcharts

Diagrams
Scatter
Diagrams

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 Flowcharts
Slide 1 of 7

• Flowcharts
– A flowchart is a picture of a process.
– The first step in many process improvement projects is to
flowchart the process as it exists. This useful step also
determines the parameters for process improvement. The
concept is that we must know the process before we can
improve it.

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 Flowcharts
Slide 2 of 7

Basic Flowcharting Symbols Figure 10.3

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 Flowcharts
Slide 3 of 7

• Simple Rules for Flowcharting

– Chart the process from the beginning, with all arcs in the
flowchart leaving and entering a symbol. The arcs
represent the progression from one step to the next.
– Develop a general process flowchart and then fill it out
by adding more detail about each of the elements.
– Step through the process by interviewing those who
perform it – as they do their work.
– Determine which steps add value and which don’t in an
effort to simplify the work.
– Before simplifying work, determine whether the work
really needs to be done in the first place.
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 Flowcharts
Slide 4 of 7

• Example of a Flowchart
– The flowcharts on the next two slides demonstrate the
evaluation of a simple process used in the planning
department of the City of Boise, Idaho, to issue permits
allowing applicants to take possession of newly built
homes. Figure 10.4 shows the process as it existed.
– In Figure 10.5 the process was simplified as the front
desk was given more authority and training to process the
forms without assigning them for analyst review. It was
found that the analyst review did not add value for the
organization or the customer. Therefore, it was
eliminated.

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 Flowcharts
Slide 5 of 7

Process Flowcharting: Home Occupation Process - Current

Figure 10.4

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 Flowcharts
Slide 6 of 7

Process Flowcharting: Home Occupation Process - Proposed

Figure 10.5

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 Flowcharts
Slide 7 of 7

• Steps in Flowcharting Include

– Settle on a standard set of flowcharting symbols to be
used.
– Clearly communicate the purpose of the flowcharting to
all the individuals involved in the flowcharting exercise.
– Observe the work being performed by shadowing the
workers performing the work.
– Develop a flowchart of the process.
– Review the flowchart with employees to make needed
changes and adjustments to the flowchart.

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 Check Sheets
Slide 1 of 2

• Check Sheets
– Are data gathering tools that can be used in forming
histograms; they can be either tabular or schematic.
• Setting Up a Check Sheet
– Identify common defects occurring in the process.
– Draw a table with common defects in the left column and
time period across the tops of the columns to track the
defects.
– The user of the check sheet then places check marks on
the sheet whenever the defect is encountered.

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 Check Sheets
Slide 2 of 2

Copier Problem Check Sheet Figure 10.10

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 Histograms
Slide 1 of 3

• Histograms
– A representation of data in a bar chart format.
• Rules for Developing a Histogram
– The width of the histogram bars must be consistent
(i.e., class widths are the same where each bar contains
a single class)
– The classes must be mutually exclusive and all
inclusive.

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 Histograms
Slide 2 of 3

• Number of Classes (Categories) in a Histogram

– A good rule of thumb for the number of classes is given
by the model
2k  n
where n is the number of raw data values and k is the number of classes.
Solving for k, we obtain k is greater or equal to log n/log 2
Using this formula we find:

Number of Observations Number of Classes

9 to 16 4
17 to 32 5
33 to 64 6
65 to 128 7
129 to 256 8
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 Histograms
Slide 3 of 3

Histogram of the Number of Maintenance Occurrences

and Service Hours for Four Production Lines

Figure 10.11

Managing Quality: An Integrative Approach; 2nd Edition © 2004 Prentice-Hall Slide 10-20
 Scatter Diagrams
Slide 1 of 3

• Scatter Diagram
– The scatter diagram or scatter plot is used to examine the
relationships between variables.
– These relationships are sometimes used to identify
indicator variables in organizations.

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 Scatter Diagrams
Slide 2 of 3

• Steps in Setting Up a Scatter Plot

– Determine your X (independent) and Y (dependent)
variables.
– Gather process data relating to the variables identified in
step 1.
– Plot the data on a two-dimensional Cartesian plane.
– Observe the plotted data to see whether there is a
relationship between the variables.

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 Scatter Diagrams
Slide 3 of 3

Prevention in Costs and Conformance Figure 10.13

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 Control Charts

• Control Charts
– Control charts are used to determine whether a process
will produce a product or service with consistent
measurable properties.
– Control charts are discussed in detail in Chapters 12 and
13.

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 Cause and Effect Diagrams
Slide 1 of 4

• Cause and Effect (or Fishbone or Ishikawa)

Diagram
– A diagram designed to help workers focus on the
causes of a problem rather than the symptoms.
– The diagram looks like the skeleton of a fish, with the
problem being the head of the fish, major causes being
the “ribs” of the fish and subcauses forming smaller
“bones” off the ribs.

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 Cause and Effect Diagrams
Slide 2 of 4

• Steps for Creating a Cause & Effect Diagram

a State the problem clearly in the head of the fish.
b Draw the backbone and ribs. Ask the participants in the
brainstorming session to identify major causes of the
problem labeled in the head of the diagram. If
participants have trouble identifying major problem
categories, it may be helpful to use materials, machines,
people, and methods as possible bones.

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 Cause and Effect Diagrams
Slide 3 of 4

• Steps for Creating a Cause & Effect Diagram

(continued)
c Continue to fill out the fishbone diagram, asking “why?”
about each problem or cause of a problem until the fish is
filled out. Usually it takes no more than five levels of
questioning to get to root causes – hence, the “five
whys.”
d View the diagram and identify core causes.
e Set goals to address the core causes.

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 Cause and Effect Diagrams
Slide 4 of 4

Cause-and Effect Diagram: Figure 10.16

Wobbling Saw Blade Example

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 Pareto Charts
Slide 1 of 3

• Pareto Charts
– Used to identify and prioritize problems to be solved.
– Histograms aided by the 80/20 rule adapted by Joseph
Juran from Vilfredo Pareto.
– The 80/20 rule states that roughly 80% of the problems
are caused by roughly 20% of the causes.
– This means that there are a vital few causes that create
most of the problems.

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 Pareto Charts
Slide 2 of 3

• Rules for Constructing Pareto Charts

– Information must be selected based on types or
classifications of defects that occur as a result of a
process.
– Data must be collected and classified into categories.
– A histogram or frequency chart is constructed showing
the number of occurrences.
• Steps Used in Pareto Analysis:
– Gathering categorical data relating to quality problems.
– Drawing a histogram of the data.
– Focusing on the tallest bars in the histogram first when
solving the problem.
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 Pareto Charts
Slide 3 of 3

Pareto Analysis Figure 10.18

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 The Seven New Tools for
Improvement
Slide 1 of 3

• New Seven Tools

– In addition to the basic seven tools of quality is another
set of tools that focus on group processes and decision
making.
– The new seven tools (N7) were developed as a result of a
research effort by a committee of the Japanese Society for
QC Technique Development.

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 The Seven New Tools for
Improvement
Slide 2 of 3

Affinity Diagram Prioritization Grid

Tree Diagrams Matrix Diagram

The
Activity Network
Interrelationshiip
Diagram
Digraph Process Decision
Program Chart
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 The Seven New Tools for
Improvement
Slide 3 of 3

Seven Management and Planning Tools Typical Flow

Interrelationship Figure 10.21
Affinity diagram
digraph

Creative Logical

Tree diagram/
systems flow

Prioritization
Matrix diagram
matrices

Unknown Known

Activity network
PDPC
diagram

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 The Affinity Diagram
Slide 1 of 5

• The Affinity Diagram

– A tool that is used to help groups identify all of the issues
associated with a particular problem and converge on a
set number of themes or ideas that can be addressed later.
– An affinity diagram creates a hierarchy of ideas on a
large surface as shown in the next slide.

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 The Affinity Diagram
Slide 2 of 5

Affinity Diagram Figure 10.22

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 The Affinity Diagram
Slide 3 of 6

• Steps Used in Establishing an Affinity Diagram

1 Identify the problem to be tested. Create a clear, concise
statement of the issues that is understood by everyone.
2 Give the team members a supply of note cards and a pen.
Ask them to write down issues that relate to the problem.
There should only be one idea per card. Ask them to use
at least four or five words to clearly explain their
thinking.
3 Allow only about 10 minutes for this writing activity.
4 Place the written cards on a flat surface.
5 Lay out the finished cards so that all participants can see
and have access to all the cards.
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 The Affinity Diagram
Slide 4 of 5

• Steps Used in Establishing an Affinity Diagram

(continued)
6 Let everyone on the team work to move the cards into
groups with a similar theme. Do this work silently
because it does not help to discuss your thinking. Work
and move quickly.
7 If you disagree with someone else’s placement of a note
card, say nothing but move it.

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 The Affinity Diagram
Slide 5 of 5

• Steps Used in Establishing an Affinity Diagram

(continued)
8 You reach consensus when all of the cards are in groups
and the team members have stopped moving the cards.
Once consensus has been reached concerning placement
of the cards, you can create header cards.
9 Draw a finished affinity diagram and provide a working
copy for all participants.

Managing Quality: An Integrative Approach; 2nd Edition © 2004 Prentice-Hall Slide 10-39
 The Interrelationship Digraph
Slide 1 of 4

• Interrelationship Digraph
– A tool designed to help identify and understand the
causal relationships between the different issues that
surfaced while completing the Affinity Diagram.
– This tool also helps to identify the most important issues
to be focused on in pursuing the solution to a problem.

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 The Interrelationship Digraph
Slide 2 of 4

Interrelationship Digraph Figure 10.24

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 The Interrelationship Digraph
Slide 3 of 4

• Steps for Completing an Interrelationship Digraph

1 Construct an affinity diagram to identify the issues
relating to the problem. After you have done this, place
the cards with related issues in columns with gaps
between the cards. It is helpful to use sticky notes on a
large piece of flipchart paper.
2 Create the digraph by examining the cards one by one
asking, “What other issues on this digraph are caused or
influenced by this issue?” As team members identify
issues that are related, draw a one-way arrow from the
first issue (the cause) to the second issue (the one
influenced by the cause). Do this until all the issues have
been discussed.
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 The Interrelationship Digraph
Slide 4 of 4

• Steps for Completing an Interrelationship Digraph

(continued)
3 After reviewing the arrows and making needed revisions,
count the number of arrows pointing to each note and
write the numbers on the notes.
4 Identify the cards with the most arrows as the “key
factors.” There should not be more than 5 to 10 key
factors. Boxes with the most outgoing arrows tend to be
root causes. Boxes with incoming arrows tend to be
performance indicators.
5 Draw a double box around the key factors and brainstorm
ways to address these issues.
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 Tree Diagrams
Slide 1 of 3

• Tree Diagrams
– A tool used to identify the steps needed to address a
particular problem.
– Very similar to a work breakdown structure used in
planning projects.

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 Tree Diagrams
Slide 2 of 3

Tree Diagram Figure 10.26

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 Tree Diagrams
Slide 3 of 3

• Steps Used to Complete a Tree Diagram

1 Assemble the header cards from the affinity diagram.
From these cards, choose the header card that represents
the most important issue.
2 Once the goal statement has been determined, ask, “What
are the steps required to resolve or achieve this major
objective or goal?”
3 One the major tasks have been identified, move to the
next level under each task and ask for the second level
tasks, “What are the steps required to resolve or achieve
this objective or goal?”
4 Continue doing this for successive levels until you have
exhausted your ideas for steps.
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 Prioritization Grid
Slide 1 of 4

• Prioritization Grid
– A prioritization grid is used to make decisions based on
multiple criteria. For example, in choosing a technology,
we might have a variety of options. Also, the decision
criteria vary as to how to choose possible desired
outcomes.
– When there are multiple alternatives and multiple criteria,
a prioritization matrix is a good method to inform your
decision making without resorting to more sophisticated
analysis.

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 Prioritization Grid
Slide 2 of 4

Prioritization Grid Figure 10.27

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 Prioritization Grid
Slide 3 of 4

• Steps Required to Make a Prioritization Grid

1 Determine your goal, your alternatives, and the criteria by
which a decision is to be made.
2 Place the selection criteria in order from most important
to least important.
3 Apply a percentage weight to each of the criteria for each
option. Apply a weight to each of the criteria such that
all the weights add up to 1 (for example, A = .40, B = .30,
C = .25, and D = .05).
4 Sum the individual rating for each criterion to come to an
overall ranking. Divide by the number of individuals to
find an average ranking.
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 Prioritization Grid
Slide 4 of 4

• Steps Required to Make a Prioritization Grid

5 Rank order each alternative with respect to the criteria.
Average the rankings and apply a completed ranking.
6 Multiply the criteria weight by it associated criterion rank
for each criterion in the matrix. Notice that in this case, a
ranking of 4 is best and 1 is worst. The result in each cell
of the matrix is called an importance score.
7 Sum the importance scores for each alternative.
8 Rank order the alternatives according to importance.

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 Matrix Diagram
Slide 1 of 3

• Matrix Diagram
– Brainstorming tool that can be used in a group to show
the relationships between ideas or issues.
– Similar in concept to quality function deployment in its
use of symbols, its layout, and its application.
– Simple to use.
– Can be used in 2, 3 or 4 dimensions.
– Can be used to show responsibility among different
people.

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 Matrix Diagram
Slide 2 of 3

Matrix Diagram Figure 10.28

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 Matrix Diagram
Slide 3 of 3

• Steps for Completing a Matrix Diagram

1 Determine the number of issues or dimensions to be used
in the matrix.
2 Choose the appropriate matrix.
3 Place the appropriate symbols in the matrix.

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 Process Decision Program Chart
Slide 1 of 4

• Process Decision Program Chart

– A tool to help brainstorm possible contingencies or
problems associated with the implementation of some
program or improvement.
• Example of a Process Decision Program Chart
– An example of a process decision control chart in tree
form is shown on the next slide.

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 Process Decision Program Chart
Slide 2 of 4

Process Decision Program Chart Figure 10.30

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 Process Decision Program Chart
Slide 3 of 4

• Steps in Completing a Process Decision Program

Chart
1 In developing the tree diagram, place the first-level boxes
in sequential order. (These are the boxes in the first
column in the example.)
2 Moving to the second level, list implementation details at
a fairly high level. Try to be all-inclusive at a
macrolevel.
3 At the third level, ask the question, “What unexpected
things could happen in this implementation?” or “What
could go awry at this stage?”

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 Process Decision Program Chart
Slide 4 of 4

• Steps in Completing a Process Decision Program

Chart (continued)
4 At the fourth level, brainstorm possible countermeasures
to the problems identified at the third level.
5 Evaluate the counter measures for feasibility and mark
those that are feasible with an O and those that are not
feasible with an X.

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 Activity Network Diagram
Slide 1 of 2

• Activity Network Diagram

– An activity network diagram is also known as a PERT
(program evaluation and review technique) diagram or
critical path (longest path in time from beginning to end)
diagram and is used in controlling projects.
– These are discussed in detail in Chapter 11.
• Example of an PERT Diagram
– The figure on the next slide shows a PERT diagram with
nodes and times. The nodes are circles and the times are
given in days.

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 Activity Network Diagram
Slide 2 of 2

Activity Network Diagram Figure 10.31

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 Summary

• Improving the System

• The Plan-Do-Check-Act-Cycle
• Ishikawa’s Basic Tools of Quality
• The Seven New Tools for Improvement

Managing Quality: An Integrative Approach; 2nd Edition © 2004 Prentice-Hall Slide 10-60