Powder Metallurgy

Powder metallurgy,
is a process for forming metal
parts by heating compacted
metal powders to just below
their melting points.
 Powder Metallurgy Process

• Powder production
• Blending or mixing
• Powder compaction
• Sintering
• Finishing Operations

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Delhi Iron Pillar
23 Ft High
6 Tons

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Tungten Filament

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Tungsten Carbide Cuting Tools

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….. Cemented Carbides … Cont’d

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High-Friction Materials / Clutch Plate

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Copper-Graphite Electrical contacts (sliding)

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PM Parts

A collection of powder metallurgy parts. 11

 Connecting Rods:
Forged on left; P/M on right
Powdered Metal Transmission Gear
 Warm compaction method with 1650-ton press
 Teeth are molded net shape: No machining
 UTS = 155,000 psi
 30% cost savings over the original forged part
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 P/M Applications
 Electrical Contact materials
 Heavy-duty Friction materials
 Self-Lubricating Porous bearings
 P/M filters
 Carbide, Alumina, Diamond cutting tools
 Structural parts
 P/M magnets
 Cermets
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Why Powder Metallurgy in Important ??

• Eliminates or minimizes machining.

• Eliminates or minimizes scrap losses.
• Maintains close dimensional tolerances.
• Permits a wide variety of alloy systems.
• Produces good surface finishes.
• Provides materials which may be heat-
treated for increased strength or increased
wear resistance.
 ……….. Why P/M (Cont’d)

• Provides controlled porosity for self-

lubrication or filtration.
• Facilitates manufacture of complex or
unique shapes which would be
impractical or impossible with other
metalworking processes.
• Suited to moderate-to high volume
component production requirements.
• Cost effective.
 Limitations and Disadvantages

• Variations in density throughout part may

be a problem, especially for complex
geometries.
• Porous !! Not always desired.

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 Particle Shapes in PM

Figure: Several of the possible (ideal) particle shapes in

powder metallurgy.
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 Measuring Particle Size
Mesh count ( Number of openings per inch )
– A mesh count of 200 means there are 200 openings per linear
inch
– Since the mesh is square, the count is the same in both
directions, and the total number of openings per square inch
is 2002 = 40,000
– Higher mesh count = smaller particle size

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 MESH SIZES

-100/+200 mesh: negative means particle goes through, positive means particle does
not go through. Thus, this mesh means particle sizes between 75 and 150 microns.

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Powder Sieving

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 Packing Factor
Bulk density
Packing factor =
true density

Typical values for loose powders range between 0.5 and 0.7
How can we increase the bulk density?

• If powders of various sizes are present, smaller powders

will fit into spaces between larger ones, thus higher
packing factor
• Packing can be increased by vibrating the powders,
causing them to settle more tightly
• Pressure applied during compaction greatly increases
packing of powders through rearrangement and
deformation of particles 21
 Porosity
Ratio of volume of the pores (empty spaces) in the
powder to the bulk volume

• In principle
Porosity + Packing factor = 1.0

• The issue is complicated by possible existence of closed

pores in some of the particles

• If internal pore volumes are included in above porosity,

then equation is exact
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 Powder Metallurgy Process

• Powder production
• Blending or mixing
• Powder compaction
• Sintering
• Finishing Operations

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Production of Metallic Powders
• In general, producers of metallic powders are not the same
companies as those that make PM parts
• Any metal can be made into powder form
• Three principal methods by which metallic powders are
commercially produced
– Atomization (by gas, water, also centrifugal one)
– Chemical
– Electrolytic
• In addition, mechanical methods are occasionally used to
reduce powder sizes
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 Gas Atomization Method

High velocity gas stream flows through expansion nozzle,

siphoning molten metal from below and spraying it into
container.

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Gas Atomization Method

• Produces a liquid-metal stream by injecting

molten metal through a small orifice.
• Stream is broken by jets of inert gas, air, or
water.
• The size of the particle formed depends on
the temperature of the metal, metal flow
rate through the orifice, nozzle size and jet
characteristics.
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HORIZONTAL GAS ATOMIZATION

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VERTICAL GAS ATOMIZER

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DETAILS OF DROPLET
FORMATION

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OXIDE REDUCTION PROCESS FOR
METAL POWDER FABRICATION

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Electrolytic Process for Powder
Production

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 ELECTROLYSIS PROCESS
• Metal powder deposits at the cathode from aqueous
solution.
• Powders are among the purest available.

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MECHANICAL MILLING

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Comminution
 Crushing
 Milling in a ball mill
 Powder produced
– Brittle: Angular
– Ductile: flaky and not particularly suitable for P/M
operations

Mechanical Alloying
 Powders of two or more metals are mixed in a ball mill
 Under the impact of hard balls, powders fracture and
join together by diffusion
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Mechanical Comminution to Obtain
Fine Particles

Figure: Methods of mechanical comminution to obtain fine particles:

(a) roll crushing, (b) ball mill, and (c) hammer milling.
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Particle Shapes in Metal Powders

Figure: Particle shapes in metal powders, and the processes by which they
are produced. Iron powders are produced by many of these processes.
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Blending and Mixing of Powders
For successful results in compaction and
sintering, the starting powders must be
homogenized (powders should be blended
and mixed).

• Blending - powders of same chemistry but possibly different

particle sizes are intermingled
– Different particle sizes are often blended to reduce porosity

• Mixing - powders of different chemistries are combined .

PM technology allows mixing various metals into alloys that

would be difficult or impossible to produce by other means.
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 Blending or Mixing
• Blending a coarser fraction with a finer fraction ensures that
the interstices between large particles will be filled out.
• Powders of different metals and other materials may be
mixed in order to impart special physical and mechanical
properties through metallic alloying.
• Lubricants may be mixed to improve the powder’s flow
characteristics.
• Binders such as wax or thermoplastic polymers are added to
improve green strength.
• Sintering aids are added to accelerate densification on
heating.
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 Blending
To make a homogeneous mass with uniform distribution of
particle size and composition.
– Powders made by different processes have different sizes and
shapes
– Mixing powders of different metals/materials
– Add lubricants (<5%), such as graphite and stearic acid, to
improve the flow characteristics and compressibility of mixtures.
Combining is generally carried out in
– Air or inert gases to avoid oxidation
– Liquids for better mixing, elimination of dusts and reduced
explosion hazards
Hazards
– Metal powders, because of high surface area to volume ratio are
explosive, particularly Al, Mg, Ti, Zr, Th
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 Bowl Geometries for Blending Powders

Some common equipment geometries used

for blending powders
(a) Cylindrical, (b) rotating cube, (c) double Figure: (e) A mixer suitable for
cone, (d) twin shell blending metal powders.
Since metal powders are abrasive, mixers rely on the rotation or
tumbling of enclosed geometries as opposed to using aggressive
agitators.
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 Compaction

Application of high pressure to the powders to form them

into the required shape.

Conventional compaction method is pressing, in which

opposing punches squeeze the powders contained in a die.
– The work part after pressing is called a green compact,
the word green meaning not yet fully processed.

– The green strength of the part when pressed is adequate

for handling but far less than after sintering.

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 Compaction
• Press powder into the desired shape and size in dies using
a hydraulic or mechanical press
• Pressed powder is known as “green compact”
• Stages of metal powder compaction:

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Powder Compaction steps

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 Compaction
Powders do not flow like liquid, they simply compress until
an equal and opposing force is created.
– This opposing force is created from a combination of
(1) resistance by the bottom punch and
(2) friction between the particles and die surface

Compacting consolidates and densifies the component for

transportation to the sintering furnace.

Compacting consists of automatically feeding a controlled

amount of mixed powder into a precision die, after which it is
compacted.
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 Compaction Sequence

Figure: Typical compaction sequence for a single-level part, showing the

functions of the feed shoe, die core rod, and upper and lower punches.
Loose powder is shaded; compacted powder is solid black.
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 Compacting
• Loose powder is compacted and densified into a shape,
known as green compact.
• Most compacting is done with mechanical presses and rigid
tools.
– Hydraulic and pneumatic presses are also used.

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Figure: (Left) Typical press for the compacting of metal powders. A removable
die set (right) allows the machine to be producing parts with one die set while
another is being fitted to produce a second product.
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 Additional Considerations During
Compacting
When the pressure is applied by only one punch, the maximum
density occurs right below the punch surface and decreases
away from the punch.
For complex shapes, multiple punches should be used.

Compaction with a single moving Density distribution obtained with a double-

punch, showing the resultant non acting press and two moving punches. Note the
uniform density (shaded), highest increased uniformity than in a single punch.
where particle movement is the greatest. Thicker parts can be effectively compacted.

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 Friction problem in cold compaction

The effectiveness of pressing with a single-acting punch is

limited. Wall friction opposes compaction. The pressure tapers
off rapidly and density diminishes away from the punch.
Floating container and two counteracting punches help
alleviate the problem.
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• Smaller particles provide greater strength mainly due to
reduction in porosity
• Size distribution of particles is very important. For same size
particles minimum porosity of 24% will always be there
– Box filled with tennis balls will always have open space
between balls
– Introduction of finer particles will fill voids and result in ↑
density. 50
 Effects of Compaction

Increased compaction pressure

– Provides better packing of particles and leads to ↓
porosity
– ↑ localized deformation allowing new contacts to be
formed between particles
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 Effects of Compaction

• At higher pressures, the green density approaches density of

the bulk metal
• Pressed density greater than 90% of the bulk density is
difficult to obtain
• Compaction pressure used depends on desired density.
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 Sintering
Heat treatment to bond the metallic particles, thereby
increasing strength and hardness.

Usually carried out at between 70% and 90% of the

metal's melting point (absolute scale)
– Generally agreed among researchers that the primary
driving force for sintering is reduction of surface energy

– Part shrinkage occurs during sintering due to pore size

reduction

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 Sintering

 Parts are heated to ~80% of melting temperature.

 Transforms compacted mechanical bonds to much
stronger metal bonds.
 Many parts are done at this stage. Some will require
additional processing.
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 Sintering Sequence
 Parts are heated to 0.7~0.9 Tm.
 Transforms compacted mechanical bonds to much
stronger metallic bonds.

Figure: Sintering on a microscopic scale: (1) particle bonding is initiated

at contact points; (2) contact points grow into "necks"; (3) the pores
between particles are reduced in size; and (4) grain boundaries develop
between particles in place of the necked regions.
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 Sintering
In the sintering operation, the pressed-powder compacts are
heated in a controlled atmosphere to right below the
melting point.
Three stages of sintering
Burn-off (purge)- combusts any air and removes lubricants or
binders that would interfere with good bonding
High-temperature- desired solid-state diffusion and bonding occurs
Cooling period- lowers the temperature of the products in a
controlled atmosphere.

All three stages must be conducted in oxygen-free conditions

of a vacuum or protective atmosphere.
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 Sintering Cycle and Furnace

Figure: (a) Typical heat treatment cycle in sintering; and (b) schematic
cross section of a continuous sintering furnace.
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 Sintering – Three Stages
• Green compact obtained after compaction is brittle and
low in strength
• Green compacts are heated in a controlled-atmosphere
furnace to allow packed metal powders to bond together
Carried out in three stages:
• First stage: Temperature is slowly increased so that all
volatile materials in the green compact that would
interfere with good bonding is removed
– Rapid heating in this stage may entrap gases and produce
high internal pressure which may fracture the compact.
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 Sintering: High temperature stage

Promotes solid-state bonding by diffusion. Diffusion is time-

temperature sensitive. Needs sufficient time.
Promotes vapor-phase transport. As material is heated very
close to MP, metal atoms will be released in the vapor phase
from the particles. Vapor phase resolidifies at the interface.
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 Sintering: 3 rd stage
Third stage:
Sintered product is cooled in a controlled atmosphere.
– Prevents oxidation and thermal shock

Gases commonly used for sintering:

H2, N2, inert gases or vacuum

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Sintering Time, Temperature, and
Indicated Properties

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Sintering Time and Temperature
for Metals

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 Finishing
• The porosity of a fully sintered part is still significant (4-
15%).
• Density is often kept intentionally low to preserve
interconnected porosity for bearings, filters, acoustic
barriers, and battery electrodes.
• However, to improve properties, finishing processes are
needed:
– Cold restriking, resintering, and heat treatment.
– Impregnation of heated oil.
– Infiltration with metal (e.g., Cu for ferrous parts).
– Machining to tighter tolerance.

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 Secondary Operations
 Most powder metallurgy products are ready to use
after the sintering process.
 Some products may use secondary operation to
provide enhanced precision, improved properties, or
special characteristics.
 Distortion may occur during non uniform cool-down
so the product may be repressed, coined, or sized to
improve dimensional precision.

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 Secondary Operations
• If massive metal deformation takes place in the second
pressing, the operation is known as P/M forging
– Increases density and adds precision
• Infiltration and impregnation- oil or other liquid is forced
into the porous network to offer lubrication over an
extended product lifetime
• Metal infiltration fills in pores with other alloying elements
that can improve properties
• P/M products can also be subjected to the conventional
finishing operations: heat treatment, machining, and
surface treatments
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 Densification and Sizing
Secondary operations are performed to increase density,
improve accuracy, or accomplish additional shaping of
the sintered part.
• Repressing - pressing sintered part in a closed die to increase
density and improve properties
• Sizing - pressing a sintered part to improve dimensional
accuracy
• Coining - pressworking operation on a sintered part to press
details into its surface
• Machining - creates geometric features that cannot be achieved
by pressing, such as threads, side holes, and other details

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 Impregnation and Infiltration
 Porosity is a unique and inherent characteristic of
PM technology
 It can be exploited to create special products by
filling the available pore space with oils, polymers,
or metals

Two categories:
1. Impregnation
2. Infiltration

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 Impregnation
The term used when oil or other fluid is permeated
into the pores of a sintered PM part

Common products are oil-impregnated bearings,

gears, and similar components

Alternative application is when parts are impregnated with

polymer resins that seep into the pore spaces in liquid form
and then solidify to create a pressure tight part

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 Infiltration
Operation in which the pores of the PM part are filled
with a molten metal.
The melting point of the filler metal must be below that of
the PM part.
TM (filler) < TM (Part)
Involves heating the filler metal in contact with the
sintered component so capillary action draws the filler
into the pores.
– Resulting structure is relatively nonporous, and the
infiltrated part has a more uniform density, as well as
improved toughness and strength.
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 Isostatic Pressing

Cold isostatic pressing is performed at room temperature

with liquid as the pressure medium. Hot isostatic pressing
is performed at elevated temperature with gas as the
pressure medium.
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 Special Process: Hot compaction
• Advantages can be gained by combining consolidation and
sintering,
• High pressure is applied at the sintering temperature to
bring the particles together and thus accelerate sintering.
• Methods include
– Hot pressing
– Spark sintering
– Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
– Hot rolling and extrusion
– Hot forging of powder preform
– Spray deposition
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 Cold Isostatic Pressing

Figure: Schematic diagram of cold isostatic pressing, as applied to

forming a tube. The powder is enclosed in a flexible container around a
solid-core rod. Pressure is applied isostatically to the assembly inside a
high-pressure chamber
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 Liquid Phase Sintering
During sintering, a liquid phase from the lower MP
component, may exist.
Alloying may take place at the particle-particle interface.
Molten component may surround the particle that has not
melted.
High compact density can be quickly attained.
Important variables:
– Nature of alloy, molten component/particle wetting,
capillary action of the liquid.
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 Slip-Casting
 Slip: Suspension of colloidal (small particles that do not
settle) in an immiscible liquid (generally water).
 Slip is poured in a porous mold made of plaster of paris.
Air entrapment can be a major problem.
 After mold has absorbed some water, it is inverted and the
remaining suspension poured out.
 The top of the part is then trimmed, the mold opened, and
the part removed.
 Application: Large and complex parts such as plumbing
ware, art objects and dinnerware.
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 Slip-Casting

(i) Slip is first poured into an absorbent mould

(ii) a layer of clay forms as the mould surface absorbs water
(iii)when the shell is of suitable thickness excess slip is poured away
(iv)the resultant casting
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 Other Techniques to Produce
High-Density P/M Products
 High-temperature metal deformation processes can
be used to produce high density P/M parts
 Ceracon process- a heated preform is surrounded by
hot granular material, transmitting uniform pressure.
 Spray forming- inert gases propel molten droplets
onto a mold.

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 Spray Deposition

Figure: Spray deposition (Osprey Process) in which molten metal is

sprayed over a rotating mandrel to produce seamless tubing and pipe
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 P/M Summarizing:
Powder Metallurgy is sought when -
a) It is impossible to form the metal or material by any other
technique
b) When p/m gives unique properties which can be put to good
use
c) When the p/m route is economical.

There may be over-lapping of these three points.

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