Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Hartmann (1976)
• In initial stages of economic development, education
levels typically increase much more for men than for
women. Women’s wages and opportunities for work
change relatively slowly while their husband’s income
rises fast, so the negative income effect is likely to
dominate any positive substitution effect of rising female
wages. This is what drives reductions in FLFP according
to the so-called Feminization-U hypothesis
Boserup (1970)
• Olsen and Mehta ( 2006) analyzed the NSSO data of
1999-2000 found a U curve between employment and
female educational status . They suggested that women
of poor families work both at home and out of home. But
when their income levels improve they leave their outside
work and concentrate on their household activities. On
the other hand the women of higher income groups with
higher educational levels employ domestic help and
concentrate more on their economic activities out of their
homes.
• Das and Desai ( 2003) analyzed NSSO data for 1993-94,
they found that educated women in India are less likely
to be employed, but it is attributed to a lack of
employment opportunities rather than social norms
restricting their movement.
ANALYSIS
TRENDS IN LABOR FORCE
PARTICIPATION
60
Labour force participation (in%)
50
Rural Female
40
Rural Male
30
Urban Female
20
Urban Male
10
0
YEARS 2011-12 2009-10 2004-05 1999-2000 1993-94 1987-88 1983 1977-78
Total Labour 38.1 38.15 40.925 38.275 40 39.4 39.9 40.3
Force
Total Female 20.4 20.55 25.55 22.45 24.8 24.65 25.05 25.8
Labour Force
Total Male 55.8 55.75 56.3 54.1 55.2 54.15 54.75 54.8
Labour Force
Total Rural 40.3 41.05 44.4 42.1 44.6 44 44.85 44.85
Labor Force
Rural Female 25.3 26.5 33.3 30.2 33.1 33.1 34.2 33.8
Labour Force
Total Urban 35.9 35.25 37.45 34.45 35.4 34.8 34.95 35.75
Labour Force
0 2009-10
2011-12
Rural Female
Labour Force Participation (in
70
60
50
40
1993-94
30 1999-2000
%)
20
10 2004-05
0 2009-10
2011-12
Urban Male
Labour Force Participation (in 120
100
80
1993-94
60
40 1999-2000
20
%)
2004-05
0
2009-10
2011-12
Urban Female
Labour Force Participation (in %)
40
35 1993-94
30
25 1999-2000
20 2004-05
15
10 2009-10
5 2011-12
0
• A continuous decline in the labor force participation
rate of all rural males, rural females, urban males and
urban females in the age group of 5-24 (except for
the year 2004-05)
• Possible explanation for this can be increase in
participation in education.
• This is what is visible for the case of females. The
enrolment ratio of both the urban as well as rural
females has been increasing since the year 1993-94.
Formal Education of Female Labour Force
of Age 15–24 Years by Residence
NSSO rounds Rural female Urban female
enrolment ratio enrolment ratio
1993-94 8.4 27.8
50
1993-94
40
1999-
30 2000
2004-04
20
2009-10
10
2011-12
0
not literate & Middle Secondary higher graduate
literate up to secondary and above
primary
Urban Female
35
% Female Workforce Participation
30
1993-94
25
1999-2000
20
2004-05
15
10 2009-10
5 2011-12
0
not literate & Middle Secondary higher graduate
literate up to secondary and above
primary
Distribution by general educational level
for rural females(in %)
Year Not Literate and Middle Secondary and
literate up to above
primary
2011-12 47.5 21.3 13.8 17.4
2009-10 49.8 21.9 13.5 14.8
2004-05 58.5 19.9 11.3 10.2
1999- 65.2 17.4 9.6 7.7
2000
1993-94 70.8 16.6 7.3 5.3
SOURCE: NSS DATA
Distribution by general educational level
for urban females (in %)
Years Not literate Literate and Middle Secondary
up to and above
primary
2011-12 22.6 17 15.1 45.3
2009-10 23.6 17.2 15.3 43.9
2004-05 27.9 19.7 16.8 35.6
1999-2000 31.8 19.5 15.7 32.8
1993-94 36.3 21.6 14.3 27.7
SOURCE: NSS DATA
MARITAL STATUS
AND
FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION
RURAL FEMALE
60
50.8
49.2
46.7
50
% Female Labour Participation
38.5
38.4
Currently not
37.3
40
37
married
33.7
28.6
26.7
30 Currently married
20
10
0
1993-94 1999-00 2004-05 2009-10 2011-12
Source:
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/559511491319990632/pd
f/WPS8024.pdf (Authors estimates from NSSO data)
URBAN FEMALE
28.2
30
25.2
24.9
% Female Labour Participation
22.8
24
22.4
22.4
25
20.3
18.9
20
Currently not
20 married
15
Currently
10 married
0
1993-94 1999-00 2004-05 2009-10 2011-12
Source: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/559511491319990632/pdf/WPS8024.pdf
(Authors estimates from NSSO data)
PROPOTION
OF MARRIED
AND
NOT MARRIED
WOMEN
120
RURAL FEMALE URBAN FEMALE
120
100
100
80
57.7
58.4
59.8
60.2
80
64.3
62.7
62.8
62.6
60
60
40
40
42.2
41.6
40.2
39.9
37.8
37.4
37.3
37.2
20 20
0 0
1993-94 2004-05 2009-10 2011-12 1993-94 2004-05 2009-10 2011-12
60
54.6
51.5
48.8 49 47.4
50 46.4
44.1
41.3
40 38.1 38 37.3 ST
32.2 30.7 SC
30 28.1 28.9
OBC
UC
20
10
0
1993-94 1999-2000 2004-05 2007-08 2009-10 2011-12
Source:
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/559511491319990632/pdf/WPS8024.pdf
(Authors estimates from NSSO data)
URBAN FEMALE
40 37.5
36.6
% Female Labour Force Participation
34.5
35 33.1
31.7 30.7 31.7 31.1
30 27.2
25.8 24.7
25 23.5
21.7 ST
20.1
20 17.8 SC
16 15.7 15.4 OBC
15
UC
10
0
1993-94 1999-2000 2004-05 2007-08 2009-10 2011-12
Source: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/559511491319990632/pdf/WPS8024.pdf
(Authors estimates from NSSO data)
Demographics
Of
Caste
120
RURAL FEMALE URBAN FEMALE
120
100 100
80 80
% of female
% of female
40
40
45
40
35
1983
30 1987-88
25 1993-94
20 1999-2000
15 2004-05
10 2009-10
5
0
0-10 10 to 20-30 30-40 40 - 50 50 -60 60 - 70 70-80 80-90 90-100
20
RURAL FEMALE
Source: https://www.epw.in/author/vinoj-abraham (authors estimates from NSS unit
level data)
URBAN
40
% of Female Labour Force Participaiton
35
30
1983
25
1987-88
20 1993-94
15 1999-2000
2004-05
10
2009-10
5
0
0-10 10 to 20-30 30-40 40 - 50 50 -60 60 - 70 70-80 80-90 90-100
20
URBAN FEMALE
Source: https://www.epw.in/author/vinoj-abraham (authors estimates from NSS unit
level data)
WAGE RATE
• The wages have been years R_M R_F UR_M UR_F
deflated using CPI (AL) with
base year 1986-87 for rural
area and CPI (UNME) with the 2011-12 97.79 61.16 135.71 105.74
base year 1984-85 for the
urban area. 2009-10 88.76 55.53 129.72 106.2
• General positive trend is
observed except in the year
2004-05 . 2004-05 79.96 47.19 104.04 78.40
• This is paradoxical situation as
the period of 2004-05 saw an 1999- 82.69 74.04 105.23 86.97
influx of labor particularly 2000
female labor.
• By this it can be hypothesized
that women entered the labor
force in 2004-05 because of 1993-94 58.48 34.89 78.12 62.31
distress and once the situation
was normal they withdrew
from it.
EMPLOYMENT SITUATION
IN STATES
Difference in gender
gap between 2004-05
and 2011-12
2009-10
YEAR not literate literate up to primary middle secondary graduate
Gujarat 22.2 19.4 18 9.2 30.35
Haryana 22.5 25.2 12.2 8.1 25.1
Karnataka 31.7 22.4 19.7 8.2 41.1
Kerala 20.1 21.9 24.8 17.6 52.75
Madhya Pradesh 24.8 20.7 14 6.6 24.3
Odisha 26.4 19.6 10.5 4.3 13.95
Punjab 18.9 16.7 11.7 9.8 29.85
Tamil Nadu 34.4 29.6 21.1 12.8 34.6
2004-05
YEAR not literate literate up to primary middle secondary graduate
Gujarat 29.3 20.7 16.2 14.5 18.9
Haryana 21.5 16.5 12.4 15.9 26.8
Karnataka 33.4 25 23.2 11.7 25.7
Kerala 30.4 28.7 20.1 17.4 42.9
Madhya Pradesh 30.2 22.5 14.3 10.6 28.7
Odisha 34.5 13.6 8.8 14.2 27
Punjab 17.4 17.5 8.1 8.9 36.4
Tamil Nadu 40.7 37.6 25 18.1 35.2
PROPOTIONS OF FEMALES IN DIFFERENT LEVEL OF
EDUCATION
RURAL 2011-12 2004-05
states not literate secondary and not literate secondary and
above above
Gujarat 43.5 10.3 53.1 7.6
Haryana 41 18.8 52.7 10.2
Karnataka 42.8 16.4 53.3 8.3
Kerala 15.4 30.7 19.4 23.4
Madhya 46.9 7.6 64 3.1
Pradesh