CHAPTER 2

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS
Copernican Revolution
Darwinian Revolution
WHAT IS DARWINIAN THEORY

Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English

naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species
of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small,
inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete,
survive, and reproduce.
WHAT IS A EVOLUTION
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological
populations over successive generations. Evolutionary processes give
rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organization, including
the levels of species, individual organisms, and molecules.
Repeated formation of new species (speciation), change within
species (anagenesis), and loss of species (extinction) throughout the
evolutionary history of life on Earth are demonstrated by shared sets
of morphological and biochemical traits, including shared DNA
sequences. These shared traits are more similar among species that
share a more recent common ancestor, and can be used to
reconstruct a biological "tree of life" based on evolutionary
relationships (phylogenetic), using both existing species and fossils.
The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite,
to microbial mat fossils, to fossilized multicellular organisms. Existing
patterns
WHO IS CHARLES DARWIN

The publication in 1859 of The Origin of Species by Charles

Darwin ushered in a new era in the intellectual history of
humanity. Darwin is deservedly given credit for the theory
of biological evolution: he accumulated evidence
demonstrating that organisms evolve and discovered the
process, natural selection, by which they evolve. But the
import of Darwin's achievement is that it completed the
Copernican revolution initiated three centuries earlier, and
thereby radically changed our conception of the universe
and the place of humanity in it. Charles Robert Darwin was
an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, be st known
for his contributions to the science of evolution. He
established that all species of life have descended over
time from common ancestors and, in a joint publication
with Alfred Russell Wallace, introduced his scientific theory
that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a
process that he called natural selection, in which the
struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial
selection involved in selective breeding.
FREUDIAN REVOLUTION
WHAT IS FREUDIAN REVOLUTION

A relating to the ideas or methods of Sigmund Freud,

especially his ideas about the way in which people's
hidden thoughts and feelings influence their behavior
especially with respect to the causes and treatment of
neurotic and psychopathic states, the interpretation of
dreams, etc.

relating to or influenced by Sigmund Freud and his

methods of psychoanalysis, especially with reference to
the importance of sexuality in human behavior.
 • WHO IS SIGMUND FREUD
• Also considered to be the father of
psychiatry.
• Freud was born to Galician Jewish
parents in the Moravian town of
Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire.
• He qualified as a doctor of medicine in
1881 at the University of Vienna.
• he was appointed a docent in
neuropathology and became an
affiliated professor in 1902.
• Freud lived and worked in Vienna,
having set up his clinical practice there
in 1886.
•
Freud was a one of a kind thinker. There can be little question that he was
influenced by earlier thinking regarding the human mind, especially the
idea of there being activity within the mind at a conscious and
unconscious level yet his approach to these topics was largely conceptual.
His theoretical thoughts were as original as they were unique. It is a
testament to Freud’s mind to know that whether you agree, disagree, or
are ambivalent about his theory, it remains as a theoretical cornerstone in
his field of expertise.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Believing that most human suffering is determined during childhood
development, Freud placed emphasis on the five stages of psychosexual
development. As a child passes through these stages unresolved conflicts
between physical drives and social expectation may arise.

These stages are:

Oral (0 – 1.5 years of age): Fixation on all things oral. If not satisfactorily met
there is the likelihood of developing negative oral habits or behaviors.
Anal (1.5 to 3 years of age): As indicated this stage is primarily related to
developing healthy toilet training habits.
Phallic (3 – 5 year of age): The development of healthy substitutes for the
sexual attraction boys and girls have toward a parent of the opposite gender.
Latency (5 – 12 years of age): The development of healthy dormant sexual
feelings for the opposite sex.
Genital (12 – adulthood): All tasks from the previous four stages are
integrated into the mind allowing for the onset of healthy sexual feelings
and behaviors.
It is during these stages of development that the experiences are filtered through the three levels
of the human mind. It is from these structures and the inherent conflicts that arise in the mind that
personality is shaped. According to Freud while there is an interdependence among these three
levels, each level also serves a purpose in personality development. Within this theory the ability of
a person to resolve internal conflicts at specific stages of their development determines future
coping and functioning ability as a fully-mature adult.

Super ego
Each stage is processed through Freud’s concept of the human mind as a three tier system
consisting of the superego, the ego, and the id. The super ego functions at a conscious level. It
serves as a type of screening center for what is going on. It is at this level that society and parental
guidance is weighed against personal pleasure and gain as directed by ones id. Obviously, this puts
in motion situations ripe for conflict.

Ego
Much like a judge in a trial, once experiences are processed through the superego and the id they
fall into the ego to mediate a satisfactory outcome. Originally, Freud used the word ego to mean a
sense of self, but later revised it to mean a set of psychic functions such as judgment, tolerance,
reality testing, control, planning, defense, synthesis of information, intellectual functioning, and
memory.

Id
The egocentric center of the human universe, Freud believed that within this one level, the id is
constantly fighting to have our way in everything we undertake.
THE END
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CAHPTER 2