Chapter

In the quest to understand nature,

scientists use physical quantities to
describe the world around us.

Physical Quantities and Units

Part 2 – Length & Time
 measurement of length and time
accurate measurement
No measurement is ever perfectly accurate. Even with high
precision instruments, some error is inevitable.
There are two main types of errors:

Random Errors Systematic Errors

State • random • constant

• in all measurements • observers

• observers estimate consistently
Occurrence the last figure of a underestimate or
reading on an overestimate a
instrument reading

• reduced by • minimised by
Remedy averaging a large method of
number of readings differences
 measurement of length
length
Length is the measurement of something from
one end to the other end.
 has a SI unit of metre (m)
 other units include centimetres (cm),
millimetres (mm) and kilometres (km)

One metre is the distance travelled by light in a

vacuum in 1/299792458 of a second.
Q: What is the speed of light?
 measurement of length
length
Lengths can be measured by using the following:
 metre/half-metre rule

accuracy = 1 mm / 0.1 cm / 0.001 m

 measuring tape

accuracy = 1 mm / 0.1 cm / 0.001 m

 measurement of length
parallax error
The eye must be positioned perpendicularly at the mark on
the scale to avoid parallax error.

8.3 cm
correct
8.2 cm
wrong
8.5 cm
wrong

Parallax error is due to

 incorrect positioning of the eye
 the object is not at the same level as the markings of the
scale
 measurement of length
zero error
Many instruments do not read zero exactly when
there is nothing being measured.

Reasons include:
 instruments are out of adjustment
 some minor fault is present in the instrument

Instruments are usually still accurate as long as

the zero error is added or subtracted from the
reading shown on the scale.
 measurement of length
engineer’s calipers
A pair of engineer’s calipers and ruler are used for measuring
the lengths of objects without any flat sides.

the jaws are closed until remove the calipers and

the points just touch the measure the distance between
object to be measured the jaws with a ruler.
 measurement of length
vernier calipers
Vernier calipers measure small lengths accurately up to
0.01 cm.

inside jaws tail

vernier scale main scale

outside jaws
accuracy = 0.1 mm / 0.01 cm
 measurement of length
vernier calipers
AB C

main scale
(fixed)

vernier scale
(movable)
object being
9 mm
measured

reading on main scale (between A and B) = 2.4 cm

reading on vernier scale (C) = 0.08 cm
actual reading of object = 2.4 + 0.08
= 2.48 cm
 measurement of length
vernier calipers
When the two jaws of the vernier calipers touch each other,
both zero marks on the main scale and on the vernier scale
should coincide.

If not, there is a zero error in the vernier calipers.

 measurement of length
vernier calipers
If the two jaws touch each other, but the zero marks of the
main scale and vernier scale do not coincide as shown
below, the zero error is positive.
0 1
main scale
(fixed)

vernier scale
(movable) 5
0 10

zero error = +0.01 cm

supposing observed reading is 3.24 cm, then

corrected reading = observed reading – zero error
= 3.24 – (+0.01)
= 3.23 cm
 measurement of length
vernier calipers
If the two jaws touch each other, but the zero marks of the
main scale and vernier scale do not coincide as shown
below, the zero error is negative.
0 1
main scale
(fixed)

vernier scale
(movable) 5
0 10

zero error = -0.02 cm

supposing observed reading is 4.03 cm, then

corrected reading = observed reading – zero error
= 4.03 – (-0.02)
= 4.05 cm
 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge
Micrometers measure small diameters or thicknesses.

anvil spindle sleeve thimble ratchet

frame

accuracy = 0.01 mm / 0.001 cm

 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge

sleeve thimble

reading on sleeve = 4.5 mm

reading on thimble = 0.12 mm
actual reading of object = 4.5 + 0.12
= 4.62 mm
 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge
When the anvil and spindle of the micrometer
touch each other, the scales should read zero.

If not, there is a zero error in the micrometer.

 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge
If the anvil and spindle touch each other, but the scales do
not read zero as shown below, the zero error is positive.

} 2 divisions

supposing observed reading is 2.37 mm, then

corrected reading = observed reading – zero error
= 2.37 – (+0.02)
= 2.35 mm
 measurement of length
micrometer screw gauge
If the anvil and spindle touch each other, but the scales do
not read zero as shown below, the zero error is negative.

} 3 divisions

supposing observed reading is 2.87 mm, then

corrected reading = observed reading – zero error
= 2.87 – (-0.03)
= 2.90 mm
 measurement of time
time
 has a SI unit of second (s)
 other units include years, months, days, hours,
minutes and seconds
 measurement of time
time
Time can be measured by using the following:

 clocks  analogue
stopwatch

 digital
stopwatch

All timing devices make use of some regular process.

 measurement of time
the period of a simple pendulum
Time can also be measured
by using the following pendulum bob
simple pendulum. tied to one end
of a thread
 oscillations are regularly
repeating motions
 the period is time in
which 1 oscillation occurs

A O B
 measurement of time
pendulum clock
 clocks make use of a process
which is a regularly repeating
motion (oscillations), such as
the swing of a pendulum
 such oscillations are very
regular so period is regular
 most modern clocks depend on
the vibration of quartz crystals
to keep time accurately
 in clocks that are wound up,
elastic potential energy is stored
in coiled springs

pendulum clock
(cuckoo clock)
 measurement of time
watch
 used for measuring long intervals of
time
 most modern watches depend on
the vibration of quartz crystals to
keep time accurately
 the energy that keeps these
crystals vibrating comes from a
small battery
 many watches still make use of
coiled springs to supply the needed
energy

wrist watch
 measurement of time
stopwatch
A stopwatch is used to measure short intervals of time.

 stopwatches (analogue and digital)

accuracy = 0.1 s accuracy = 0.01 s

When using a digital stopwatch to

time a race, the time to the nearest
0.1 s should be given.
 measurement of time
ticker-tape timer
An electrical device that makes use of the oscillations of a
steel strip to mark short intervals of time.

6 ~ 12 V a.c. steel strip carbon paper disc

coil magnet ticker-tape drawing pin

 measurement of time
ticker-tape timer
 steel strip vibrates 50 times a second; therefore 50 dots
are made in a second on the paper tape

10-dot tape

between 2 consecutive dots, time interval = 1 s / 50 dots

= (1/50) s or 0.02 s

as there are 10 spaces on a piece of tape,

time taken for the tape to pass through the timer
= 10 x 0.02 s
= 0.20 s
 Physical quantities
are made up of may be
include

Numerical values Base quantities Vector

and suitable units Base SI units Scalar

such as for use

length (m) Measurement Prefixes
mass (kg)
time(s) e.g.
electric current (A)
temperature (K) e.g. of micro () 10-6
amount of substance (mol) milli (m) 10-3
luminous intensity (cd) centi (c) 10-2
deci (d) 10-1
kilo (k) 103
Length Time mega (M) 106

can be measured with can be measured with

metre rule pendulum clock

half-metre rule watch
measuring tape stopwatch
vernier calipers ticker-tape timer
micrometer screw gauge