EXPERIMENT – 1:

Aim: To determine the least count of the Vernier Calliper and measure the
length and diameter of a small cylinder.

Apparatus:

 A cylindrical body.
 Vernier Callipers
 Magnifying Glass

Theory:
The smallest distance that can be measured along the distance is the least count.
It is the difference between one main scale division and one vernier scale
division.
We know that,
10 𝑣. 𝑠. 𝑑 = 9 𝑚. 𝑠. 𝑑
9
1 𝑣. 𝑠. 𝑑 = 𝑚. 𝑠. 𝑑
10
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 1 𝑚. 𝑠. 𝑑 − 1𝑣. 𝑠. 𝑑
9
= 1− 𝑚. 𝑠. 𝑑
10
= 0.1𝑚𝑚 = 0.01 𝑐𝑚

Procedure:
1. Keep the jaws of the vernier callipers closed. Make sure that the zero of
the main scale perfectly coincides with the zero of the vernier scale. If it
doesn’t coincide account for the zero error for all observations.
2. Using a magnifying glass, look for the division of the main scale that
coincides with the division of the vernier scale. Note down the number of
division that coincides with each other. To avoid parallax error, position
your eye directly over the division mark.
3. Release the movable jaw by gently loosening the screw. Slide it enough
to hold the cylindrical body between the jaws AB without any undue
pressure. Align the jaws perfectly perpendicular to the diameter of the
 body. Gently tighten the screw in order to clamp the instrument in this
position to the body.
4. Note down the position of the zero of the vernier’s scale against the zero
of the main scale. Normally, it will not perfectly coincide with any of the
divisions on the main scale. Record the main scale division to the left of
the zero marks of the vernier scale.
5. Look for the exact coincidence of the vernier scale division with that of
the main scale division in the vernier window from the left end to the
right. Note down the number N.
6. Multiply the obtained N by the least count of the instrument and add the
product to the main scale reading noted in step 4. Make sure to convert
the product into proper units for valid addition.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 to get the positions of the body at different positions on
its curved surface. Make sure to take three sets of reading in each case.
8. Record the observations in a tabular column with proper reading. If
needed, apply zero correction.
9. Find the arithmetic mean of the corrected readings of the diameter of the
body.
10.Now to measure the length, hold the cylinder between the jaws along the
length of it.
11.Apply the same procedure to obtain the length of the cylinder.

Observations:
Least count of vernier callipers = 0.01 cm
Table for measuring the diameter of cylinder:

No. Of Main scale Vernier scale Vernier scale Total

obs. reading division reading reading
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1 1.2 3 3×0.01 = 0.03 1.23

2 1.2 4 4×0.01 = 0.04 1.24

3 1.2 3 3×0.01 = 0.03 1.23

1.23+1.24+1.23
Mean diameter = = 1.23333 … = 1.23 𝑐𝑚
3
The diameter of the given body = 1.23 cm
Table for length of the cylinder:

No. Of Main scale Vernier scale Vernier scale Total

obs. reading division reading reading
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1 2.4 6 6×0.01 = 0.06 2.46

2 2.4 7 7×0.01 = 0.07 2.47

3 2.4 6 6×0.01 = 0.06 2.46

2.46+2.47+2.46
Average length of cylinder = = 2.46 𝑐𝑚
3
The length of the given cylinder = 2.46 cm

Precaution:

(i) Different parts of vernier scale should be frictionless.

(ii) The least count should be calculated carefully.

EXPERIMENT – 2

Aim: To calculate the time periods (T) and their squares (T2) for each
length (l) for 20 oscillations of a simple pendulum of lengths about 80, 90,
100, 110 and 120 cm each. Plot a graph of l vs. T2. Draw the best - fit
straight line graph. Also, obtain its slope. Calculate the value of g in the
laboratory.

𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

Apparatus: Metallic spherical bob with a hook, clamp stand, fine inextensible
thread, vernier callipers, stop watch.
Procedure:

(i) Find the vernier constant and zero error of the vernier callipers.
Determine the diameter of the given pendulum bob three times from three
different positions and find the mean diameter and then radius of the bob.
(ii) Tie one end of the thread to the hook of the bob. Pass the other end of the
thread through the two split half pieces of the cork held firmly in the
clamp stand.
(iii) Place the stand on table as shown in figure.
(iv) Mark a line, with a piece of chalk, just below the pendulum bob and
parallel to the edge of the table. Mark a point, just below the bob in
equilibrium position and two other points B and C on the opposite side of
it at a distance of nearly 5 cm from mean position. Start your observation
with the length of 80 cm.
(v) Adjust the length of a thread below the cork piece so that sum of length
of thread + radius of the bob comes out to be exactly 80 cm.
(vi) Displace the pendulum bob from its mean position to the point B gently
on the line parallel to the edge of the table and release it so that the bob
starts vibrating.
(vii) After checking the stop watch start it when the bob passes through any
one mean position. Start your count from zero vibrations and when after
completing 20 vibrations the bob passes through the mean position, stop
the watch. Note the reading of the stop watch. This gives the time for 20
oscillations.
(viii) Increase the length of pendulum by 10 cm and again measure the time for
20 vibrations. And repeat the experiment up to the length 120 cm of the
pendulum increasing by 10 cm.
(ix) Dividing the time by 20, obtain the time period (T) of the pendulum for
each oscillation.
(x) Find the value of T2 for various observations.

Observations:

 Least count of vernier callipers = 0.01 cm

 Diameter of the bob, (i) 1.84 cm, (ii) 1.85 cm, (iii) 1.84 cm, (iv) 1.84 cm
 Mean observed diameter = 1.84 cm
 Radius of the bob = 0.92 cm

Table:

No of Total Time for 20 Time period T2

observation effective oscillations (T = t/20) (second2)
length of (t second)
pendulum
(l) cm
1 80 36 1.8 3.24
2 90 38 1.9 3.61
3 100 40 2.0 4.00
4 110 42 2.1 4.41
5 120 44 2.2 4.84

Graph: A graph for T2 against l.

Calculation:

In the graph, along y-axis, 15 smallest div = 10 cm

Therefore, 1 smallest div = 10/15 cm

Along, x- axis, 1 smallest div = 0.025 sec2

10
∆𝑦 47×( )
Slope = = 15
= 25.07 𝑚/𝑠 2
∆𝑥 50×0.025

Now 𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 4𝜋 2 × 25.07 = 988.72 𝑚/𝑠 2

Precaution:

(i) The amplitude of the oscillations should be kept small

(ii) Oscillations should be in a straight line.
(iii) Note that time as accurately as possible because a small error in
measuring time can produce a large error in final result.

EXPERIMENT – 3

Aim: To determine the pitch and least count of the given screw gauge and
measure the mean radius of a given wire, taking three sets of readings in
perpendicular directions.

Apparatus:
1. Screw gauge
2. Wire
3. Half-meter scale
4. Magnifying glass

Diagram

Procedure:
1. Observe the pitch scale (main scale) of screw gauge and note the magnitude
of one smallest division on it.
2. To find the pitch of the screw gauge, find the distance moved (on the main
scale) by the screw when it is given 5 complete rotations.
As pitch of the screw = distance moved by screw on giving one rotation.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝑏𝑦 5 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚
∴ 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑕 =
5
If the distance moved by screw in 5 complete rotations is 5 mm.

5 𝑚𝑚
∴ 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑕 = = 1 𝑚𝑚 = 0.1 𝑐𝑚
5
3. Observe the number of divisions on circular scale. Generally it is 100.
4. So, least count can be calculated as
 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
0.1 𝑐𝑚
= = 0.001 𝑐𝑚
100
So, Least count (LC) of a screw gauge is 0.001 cm.
5. To find the zero error, completely close the screw gauge till the ratchet gives
a ticking sound. Now observe the circular scale reading. Here zero of the
circular scale coincides with the zero of the main scale. This indicates that
the screw gauge is free from zero error.
6. To measure the diameter of the wire, roughly divide the whole wire into
three parts.
7. Place the wire between the studs of the screw gauge and close the gauge
gently by holding it from the ratchet, till the ratchet starts giving a clicking
sound.
8. Note the main scale reading, x, lying just before the circular scale.
9. Now look for the circular scale division, y, that is coinciding with the base
line of graduation.
10.Calculate the complete reading of diameter 𝐷 = [𝑥 + (𝑦 × 𝐿𝐶)] mm
11.Repeat the above measurement of diameter in a position perpendicular to the
previous one.
12.Repeat the above procedure (7 to 11) for determining the diameter at two
other parts of length to get three sets of readings in perpendicular directions.
13.Take the mean of the above readings to obtain mean diameter and half of this
mean diameter to get the mean radius of the wire.
Observation:
Least count = 0.001 cm
Zero error = 0 cm
No of Main scale Circular scale Observed diameter
observation reading, x (cm) reading, y (cm) [𝒙 + (𝒚 × 𝑳𝑪)]
1 0 65 0.065
2 0 67 0.067
3 0 68 0.068

0.065+0.067+0.068
Mean diameter = = 0.067 𝑐𝑚
3
Mean radius = 0.067/2 = 0.034 cm (approximately)
Precautions:

1. There shouldn’t be any friction while moving the screw.

2. The screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K to avoid
undue pressure.
3. For zero correction proper sign should be noted.
4. To avoid back-lash error in the screw, the screw should be moved in the
same direction.
5. The diameter of the wire should be measured at each place in two
perpendicular directions and mean should be taken.

Experiment – 4
Aim: To measure the volume of a metal bob (the one used in simple
pendulum experiments) from the readings of water level in a measuring
cylinder using displacement method. Also calculate the same volume from
the radius measured using Vernier callipers. Comment on the accuracies.

Apparatus: A measuring jar, given metal bob, thread and a vernier calliper.

Procedure:
1. Fill the measuring jar with water upto 50 mL. Note the level of water in the
jar as V1.
2. Tie the metal bob with the thread.
3. Slowly lower the metal bob inside the measuring jar until it is completely
immersed in water.
4. Note down the level of water in the jar without shaking the metal bob or jar.
Let this be V2.
5. The difference (V2 –V1) gives the volume of metal bob.
6. Take out the metal bob and dry it.
7. Bring the movable jaw in contact with the fixed jaw. Here zero of vernier
scale coincides with the zero of the main scale. Hence the vernier calliper
has no zero error.
8. Fix the metal bob between the two external jaws and note the main scale
reading.
9. Find the total reading by adding the main scale and the vernier scale reading.
Observation:
Least count of measuring jar = 1 mL
Table-1:
No of Initial level of water Final level of Volume of the
obs. (V1 in mL) water (V2 in mL) metal bob V2 – V1
1 50 53 3 mL
2 45 48 3 mL
3 55 59 4 mL

Mean volume of metal bob = 3.3 mL

Least count of vernier calliper = 0.01 cm
Table – 2:
No of Main scale Vernier Vernier scale Total
observation reading (cm) scale reading (cm) reading
division (cm)
1 1.8 3 3×0.01 = 0.03 1.83
2 1.8 4 4×0.01 = 0.04 1.84
3 1.8 5 5×0.01 = 0.05 1.85

Mean diameter = 1.84 cm

Radius = 0.92 cm
4
Volume = 𝜋(0.92)3 = 3.26 𝑐𝑚3
3
Comparison:
Volume of metal bob measured by displacement of water = 3.3 cm3
Volume of metal bob measured by vernier calliper = 3.26 cm3

Precautions

1. The metal bob should not touch the sides of the measuring jar.
2. The metal bob should be completely immersed in water.

The volume of the metal bob could be measured correctly upto 1 cm3 by the
displacement of water but the volume is calculated correct upto 0.01 cm3 with
the help of vernier callipers. The least count of vernier callipers used to measure
the radius of the bob is 0.01 cm. Hence the radius measured with the help of
vernier callipers is more accurate.