Installation of Electrical components of Solar PV System

Contents

• Solar Cable
• Fuse and Connecters
• Junction boxes
• Charge controller
• Inverter
• DCDB, ACDB
• Batteries
• Earthing and LA
 Learning Objective
At the end of this session you will be able to –

• u Prepare for Solar Installation

• u Install Electrical Components
• u Install Conduits and Cables
• u Get the Grounding Systems installed
• u Install Battery bank (as required)
• U install charge controller and inverter
 Element - Prepare for Solar Installation

Learning Objective

To be competent, the individual must be able to:

• u Implement the site safety plan and Maintain clear work area.
• u Select required Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
• u Clarify the maximum working voltage
• u Measure current and voltage on equipment before
proceeding with work
• u Inspect and demonstrate the use of electrical installation
toolkit
• u Inspect and maintain safety equipment
• u Inspect and maintain testing equipment
• u Demonstrate situational awareness
 Element - Install Electrical Components
Learning Objective
To be competent, the individual must be able to:
• u Select the location of DC combiner box (go by book /SLD)
• u Install DC combiner box along with disconnect protections
• u Install DC energy meters
• u Confirm battery bank location and Install batteries.
• u Prepare battery terminals and Install battery interconnection cables.
• u Terminate fine stranded cables.
• u Test final assembled battery polarity and voltage.
• u Install charge controller (if required)
• u Install inverter
• u Install utility required disconnects (ACDB)
• u Connect the solar system to the main Distribution box or Transformer.
• u Proper labeling of the components
 Element - Install Conduits and cables

Learning Objective

To be competent, the individual must be able to:

• u Prepare conduit and cable routing plan
• u Select the correct cable type, color, and
gauge.
• u Support and secure conduit.
• u Install the cables for modules, inverter and
other components
• u Terminate cables.
• u Check cables for continuity
• u Proper labeling of conduits and cables20
 Element - Get the Grounding Systems installed

Learning Objective
To be competent, the individual must be able to:
• u Locate underground hazards, if any
• u Determine grounding conductor size.
• u Get the grounding system installed for modules/mounting system
and inverters
• u Get the Bonding done for all electrical equipment’s and apply
anti – oxidant material
Element - Install Battery bank (as required)

Learning Objective
To be competent, the individual must be able to:
• u Confirm and install battery bank enclosure/racks.
• u Install battery spill containment (if required).
• u Install batteries and Prepare battery terminals (e.g., clean).
• u Install battery interconnection cables and apply anti-oxidant
material
• u Terminate fine stranded cables.
NOS Knowledge and Learning
Knowhow of Tools & Tackles required for electrical installation.
• u Effect on array output of current and voltage based on series /
parallel connections of modules, tilt angle, orientation and shading.
• u DO’s and Don’ts of material handling and storage.
• u Determining whether any shading will occur o the modules using
field measurements and a sun path diagram, the times and dates
when a PV array will be shaded by obstacles at a particular site.
• u Determining the cabling route and estimate the length of cable
required.
• u Determining where the array junction box (if required) and inverter
will be located.
NOS Knowledge and Learning
• u Measuring solar irradiance with a pyranometer.
• u Observe how current and voltage of a module varies w.r.t load.
• u Effect of blocking and bypass diodes.
• u Basic functioning and Operation of different types of inverters and other
electrical components.
• u Do's and don'ts of DC wiring and installation of other electrical components.
• u Connection of the Solar Power Plant to the distribution box/ LT Panel and
switchgear along with precautions based on different types of plants
• u Installation work on a Solar power system in accordance with relevant standards
and regulations
• u Occupational health and safety (OHS) standards and associated risks when
working on that particular site.
Section ­1
Safety
 Safety in PV installations

• The goal is to reduce the number of injuries to zero.

• Safety is a full-time and the responsibility of every employee.
• When working with solar photovoltaic energy systems, you will be working with equipment that
can produce several hundred watts of power
• You are familiar with the general photovoltaic safety rules to minimize your risk of injury due to
• Accidental electric shock
• Other physical harm like cuts, bumps, falls, and sprains hurt just
Why Safety is Essential
Safe installations are more efficient and cost effective.

One lost workday injury might cost organization in terms of following

• Production down-time.
• Productive time lost by an injured employee.
• Productive time lost by employees and supervisors helping the accident victim.
• Cleanup and start-up of operations interrupted by an accident.
• Time to hire or train a worker to replace the injured worker until they return to
work.
• Time and cost for repair or replacement of damaged equipment or materials.
• Cost of continuing all or part of the employee’s wages, plus compensation.
• Reduced morale among your employees and perhaps lower efficiency.
• Cost of completing paperwork generated by the accident.
 Steps

1. Evaluate and identify hazards.

2. Eliminate or remove hazards.
3. Control hazards that cannot be eliminated.
4. Recover from accidents

How??

• Evaluate and identify potential safety hazards and injuries

• Prevent accidents by using safe work practices
• Recover from accidents using preplanning
 Typical construction work situations

It include mainly:
• Using power tools (Drill machine/ AC or DC).
• Working with ladders to access equipment and rooftops.
• Working in very hot or very cold conditions.
• Working with solar hot water collector panels.
• Working with solar electric PV panels.
Potential injuries from identified hazards
• Death
• Severe/traumatic/massive head/brain/skull injuries
• Broken/fractured/shattered bones
• Spinal injuries
Safety Tip:
• Punctured lungs
• Internal organ injuries
You are the most important factor in
• Electrocution preventing accidents from happening!
• Burns Make sure
• Heatstroke you understand all the potential
• Severe cuts or lacerations safety hazards and the injuries that
can result from accidents
• Serious back or neck injures
to ensure that you find ways to keep
• Puncture injuries from falling onto items yourself and others healthy and alive.
• Eye injuries
• Strains and sprains
 Safety planning checklist
The following items should be considered when you develop procedures for responding to
emergencies
• How many people are on the jobsite?
• Who knows they are on the jobsite?
• Are they expected to return at a specific time?
• Do they have access to phone service ?
• Are they expected to call in at a specific time?
• Do employees have the proper safety training they need for the work they are doing?
• Do employees have first-aid and CPR training?
• Do they carry a first-aid kit?
• Is there a nearby hospital or clinic?
• Do employees have proper safety gear in good working condition (such as fall protection
and other personal protective equipment)?
• Is employee emergency-contact information such as phone number, person to contact, and
any pertinent medical information up-to-date and accessible?
• What is their emergency plan?
18
 Personal Safety
Body Part Protection Equipment

Eye Safety Glasses, Goggles

Face Face Shields

Head Safety helmet

Feet Safety Shoes

Hands and arms Gloves

Bodies Vests

Hearing Earplugs, Earmuffs

19
Safety & Protective Equipment

•Safety helmet ,
•Cotton hand glove,
Reflective jacket,
•Gum boots,
•Safety goggles,
•Nose mask,
•Ear plug
 Physical Hazard – Personal Protection

 Protective Helmet  Earmuffs  Earplugs

 Safety glasses  Goggles  Face shield

 Footwear

21
Subdivisions of Hazards During Solar Plant
Installation/O&M

• Non-Electrical Hazards
• Exposure
• Insects, Snakes, and Other Vermin
• Falls, Sprains, and Strains
• Cuts and Bumps
• Burns--Thermal
• Burns—Acid
• Electrical Hazards
• DC Electrical shocks
• AC side electrical Shocks
General electrical hazards
1. Overhead power lines.
2. Electrical systems and tools that are not grounded or double-insulated.
3. Overloaded circuits
4. Ladders that conduct electricity
5. Electrical hazards can be made worse if the worker, location, or
equipment is wet.

Solution:
1. Evaluate and identify electrical hazards.
2. Eliminate or remove electrical hazards.
3. Control electrical hazards that cannot be eliminated.
4. Recover from electrical accidents.
 Non-Electrical Hazards

• Exposure
• PV systems are installed where
the sun is brightest and no
shade exists.
• When you work on a PV
system you should wear a hat
• In the summertime, drink
plenty of liquid--never
alcoholic--and take a break and
get into the shade for a few
minutes each hour.
• In the wintertime, dress
warmly, wear gloves whenever
possible
 Insects, Snakes, and Other Vermin

• Spiders, wasps, and other insects often

move in and inhabit junction boxes in PV
systems.
• Some wasps build nests in the array
framing.
• Rattlesnakes use the shade provided by
the array and fire ants are commonly
found under arrays or near battery storage
boxes.
• Always be prepared for the unexpected
when you open junction boxes.
• Look carefully before you crawl under the
array.
• It may sound funny, but fire ants or black
widow spiders (let alone rattlesnakes) can
cause painful injury.
Falls, Sprains , Strains, Cuts and Bumps
Ladder safety
Ladder safety
Burns—Thermal , Acid

• Metal left exposed in the sun can reach temperatures

of 80°C. This is too hot to handle, but is unlikely to
cause bums if extended contact is not made.
• Concentrating PV systems pose an added hazard from
burns. Some concentrating PV systems focus up to
400 suns on the PV cell.
• This added thermal energy is dissipated using active
or passive cooling mechanisms with temperatures far
exceeding 100°C.
• Momentary contact can cause serious bums. Active
cooling systems contain a heat transfer fluid that can
scald flesh
• Most stand-alone PV systems contain batteries.
• A large percentage of the batteries are the lead-acid
type and the hydrochloric acid is a hazard.
 Physical Hazard – Fall Protection

• During construction
unprotected falls can lead to
serious injury or even death
• Skylights must be protected so
workers won’t fall into them
• Use personnel fall arrest
systems to ensure personal
safety incase of a fall Lifeline and Roof Anchors

Body Harnesses
Safety belts
Working at tilted Roof
 Head Protection
Types of Head PPE :
• Class A Hard Hats
– Protect you from falling objects
– Protect you from electrical shocks
up to 2,200 volts
• Class B Hard Hats
– Protect you from falling objects
– Protect you from electrical shocks
up to 20,000 volts
• Class C Hard Hats
– Protect you from falling objects
• Bump Caps
– Bump caps are made from lightweight
plastic and are designed to protect you
from bumping your head on protruding objects
 Hand Gloves
Voltage protection is broken down into the following
classes:
• Class 00 - Maximum use voltage of 500 volts AC/proof tested to 2500
volts AC
• Class 0 - Maximum use voltage of 1,000 volts AC/proof tested to 5,000
volts AC
• Class 1 - Maximum use voltage of 7,500 volts AC/proof tested to 10,000
volts AC
• Class 2 - Maximum use voltage of 17,000 volts AC/proof tested to 20,000
volts AC
• Class 3 - Maximum use voltage of 26,500 volts AC/proof tested to 30,000
volts AC
• Class 4 - Maximum use voltage of 36,000 volts AC/proof tested to 40,000
volts AC
36
 Electrical Hazards
• These injuries can occur anytime electric current
flows through the human body.
• Electrocution is the third-leading cause of work-
related deaths among 16- and 17-year-olds.
• Electrocution is the cause of 12% of all workplace
deaths among young workers.
• The amount of current that will flow is determined
by the difference in potential (voltage) and the
resistance in the current path.
• If a current greater than 0.02 amperes (only 20 milli-
amperes) flows through your body is can paralysed
your body
• Resistivity of human skin varies from just under a
thousand ohms to several hundred thousand ohms
depending primarily on skin moisture.
 Electrical Hazard - Shock
• If the human body is exposed to a voltage, it acts like a resistor
and allows current to pass
• The value of resistance varies with condition (Wet: 1,000 Ω - Dry:
100,000 Ω)

Note: To avoid shock, arc and fire during installation, connecting modules with a total open circuit voltage higher than 60V
shall be avoided until commissioning.
Source: JiCA
 Electrical Hazard - Shock
• The amount of current that will flow is determined by voltage and
resistance in the circuit.
• If current greater than 20mA passes through a body, it can cause
serious damage.
• Always check the voltage between
any conductor and any other
wires, and to ground
• Always wear gloves and avoid
touching conductive parts
(e.g., battery terminals, metal and
mounting frames) with bare hands
Source: JiCA

39
 Electrical Hazard – Sparks
• Electric sparks and loose connection can lead
to a fire

– Preventive Measures
– Use insulated tools (e.g., spanners)
– Put covers over the battery terminals
– Install fuse (e.g., near the battery)
– Check contact and voltage drop Source: JiCA

– Tighten up screw
– Check cable and terminal block periodically

Source: JiCA
 Video

live wire safety.mp4

 Battery Hazards
• Electrical Burn: Shorting the terminals of a
typical battery that might be found in a PV
system can cause currents of over 6000 amperes
to flow for a few seconds. Severe burns and
death can occur even though the voltage is low.

• Acid Burns: Any battery acid can cause bums if it

comes in contact with exposed skin. Contact with
the eye may cause blindness.

• Gas Explosion or Fire: Most batteries used in PV

systems release hydrogen gas as a result of the
charging process. This flammable gas is a hazard
and all flames and equipment that could create a
spark--such as a controller with relays--should be
kept away from the batteries. The battery should
be located in a well-ventilated area.
 Chemical Hazard

• Hydrogen is produced when lead/acid battery is charged

– Preventions
• Install battery in well-ventilated area
• Keep flames and equipment that create
spark away from the battery

Source: JiCA

47
During Battery Installation
 Fire Extinguisher

A multipurpose extinguisher is a good

choice for most situations in
solar plumbing.

Use of CO2 Operated fire extinguisher

should be avoided because they
extinguish fire by removing oxygen.

Slide 49
Fire Extinguisher
Fire Extinguisher
Standard labeling

Class -C
 Theft

Yes, It can happen to you!!

 Theft prevention and theft delaying measures
• Mount the panels and support
equipment high and control access.
Mounting on top of a two-story building
or higher will make theft difficult.
• Place a heavy gage welded wire or
tubular steel fence around solar arrays.
• Fences should be equipped with top
projections to discourage climbing.
• They should be constructed over a
cement footing to discourage tunneling
under. Locks on these fences should be
solid enough to resist attack by bolt
cutters or pry tools.
 Section­2
System voltage
Quick look to Basic electrical
 Conductor , Insulator, Semi Conductor

Materials with full of free electrons. These electrons can easily flow
Conductors through the material.
Examples: all metals, semi-metals like carbon-graphite, antimony and
arsenic
Materials that have very few free electrons.
Insulators Examples: plastic, glass and wood
These materials lie between the extremes of good conductors and good
insulators. They are crystalline materials that are insulators when pure,
but will conduct when an impurity is added and/or in response to light,
heat, voltage, etc.
Semiconductors
Examples: elements like silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), selenium (Se);
compounds like gallium arsenide (Ga-As) and indium antimonide (In-Sb)
 Types of Materials
Conductors :
 Materials that permit free movement of electrons are known as
conductors.
 Composed of large number of free electrons.
 Offer little resistance to current flow.
 Metals like copper, gold, silver, aluminium are good conductors.

Copper

Silver Aluminium

59
 Types of Materials

Semiconductor:
• A material that behaves between a conductor
and an insulator.
• Silicon is a widely used semiconductor in
electronics.

Silicon chip as semiconductor

 Types of Materials
Insulator:
• A material in which electrons can not flow freely is
known as an insulator.
• Hence an insulator opposes the flow of electric current.

Rubber? plastic Wood?

61
 Voltage
• Voltage: is the electric energy charge
difference of electric potential energy
transported between two points.
• Voltage is equal to the work done per
unit of charge against a static electric
field to move the charge between
two points.

• Voltage is the electrical potential or

the pressure that moves the
electrons. It is the potential
difference between two points.
• Voltage can be thought of as
electrical head not the pressure.
• Unit is Volt and denoted by V
• Current: Current is a
flow of electrical charge
carriers, usually
electrons or electron-
deficient atoms.
Measured in Ampere “A”
• Unit is Ampere and
denoted by “I”.
 Water Analogy to Electrical Circuit

Water analogy to voltage, current and resistance:

TYPES OF SUPPLY
 DC Supply
• It is the unidirectional flow or movement of
electric charge carriers (which are usually
electrons).
• The intensity of the current can vary with time,
but the general direction of movement stays the
same at all times.
• As an adjective, the term DC is used in reference
to voltage whose polarity never reverses.
• In a DC circuit, electrons emerge from the
negative, or minus, pole and move towards the
positive, or plus, pole. Nevertheless, physicists
define DC as traveling from plus to minus.
• Direct current is produced by electrochemical
and photovoltaic cells and batteries
• Virtually all electronic and computer hardware
needs DC to function
 Alternating current
• Alternating current (AC) occurs when charge carriers in a conductor or
semiconductor periodically reverse their direction of movement.
• Household utility current in most countries is AC with a frequency of 60 hertz
(60 complete cycles per second), although in some countries it is 50 Hz (INDIA).
• The radio-frequency (RF) current in antennas and transmission lines is another
example of AC.
• An AC waveform can be sinusoidal, square, or saw tooth-shaped. Some AC
waveforms are irregular or complicated.
• An example of sine-wave AC is common household utility current (in the ideal
case). Square or saw tooth waves are produced by certain types of electronic
oscillators, and by a low-end uninterruptible power supply (UPS) when it is
operating from its battery.
• Irregular AC waves are produced by audio amplifiers that deal with analog voice
signals and/or music.
 Which type of supply is more fatal?

• Both AC and DC are dangerous and may prove to be

fatal.
• The effect of electric shock on a person is very difficult
to predict as it depends on many factors like amount of
current, path taken by the current, duration of flow,
voltage, resistance offered by body etc.

• While AC is known to cause more number of deaths, it

is difficult to get away while getting a shock from DC.
Ohm’s Law
•It is the most fundamental
law in electricity.
•States that the current
flowing in an electric circuit is
directly proportional to the
applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance
in the circuit.
•* Temperature of conductor
is constant
• Equation
E= I*R
 Power & Energy
• Power
• Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is converted to another form, such as motion,
heat, or an electromagnetic field. The common symbol for power is the uppercase letter P.
• The standard unit is the watt, symbolized by W. In utility circuits, the kilowatt (kW) is often specified
instead;
1 kW = 1000 W

Horsepower (HP)
• It is the common unit of power; i.e., the rate at which work is done. The electrical equivalent of one
horsepower is 746 watts.
• In a DC circuit, a source of E volts, delivering amperes, produces P watts according to the formula:
P = E*I
• When a current of I amperes passes through a resistance of R ohms, then the power in watts
dissipated or converted by that component is given by:
P = I^2*R
• When a potential difference of E volts appears across a component having a resistance of R ohms, then
the power in watts dissipated or converted by that component is given by:
P = E^2/R
 Power

• Also denoted by kilo-watt (kW) and mega-watt (MW)

for higher values.
• 1 MW = 1000 kW = 10,00,000 Watts

1V x 4A = 4W 2V x 2A = 4W

74
Energy
• Capacity for doing work,
Represented by E, Unit is
kWh (kilo Watt hour)
• Calculated by
E = Power x Time

Kilowatt-hour (kWh):

• If 1 kW of electrical energy
consumed by a device for 1
hr than total energy
consumed will be 1kWh,
common term used for kWh
is no of units.
 Synchronization for Two Power Sources
• Process of connecting together independent AC or DC sources is known as
synchronization, in SPV plant there could be more than two sources of power
or may be a battery bank for uninterrupted power supply to load, so it is
essential to take necessary electrical measures for synchronizing all of them.

• Conditions for synchronization-

• The terminal voltage of the incoming source must be equal to bus-bar voltage
• The frequency of the incoming source must be equal to the bus-bar frequency
• The waveforms of the two power sources must be the same and also of same
phase sequence.
• In solar system all the panels should be same electrical characteristics and
string voltage should be same as inverter voltage range and battery bank.
I-V Characteristics of solar module
 Series Connection of PV Modules

• Voltage of the circuit

increases as PV
modules are
connected in series.

I(A)
Isc

Voc 2 x Voc 3 x Voc V (V)

79
Parallel Connection of PV modules
I(A)
3 x Isc

2 x Isc

Isc

• Current increases
when PV modules
are connected in
parallel. Voc V (V)
Shading on solar Panel
Length of shadow varies from sunrise to sunset and it also
varies due to seasons
 Panel to panel shadow

For many locations, a design rule of

thumb is to space the modules in
such a way that there is no shading at
solar noon on the winter solstice
(December 21st in the northern
hemisphere).
 Series Connection of Solar Cells

• Achieved by connecting the positive at the front of one cell with the negative at the
back of the second cell
• Voltage of solar cells adds together when these are in series
• When we connect two solar cells with different currents in series the current in the
series circuit corresponds to that of the weakest solar cell; the same effect occurs
when a solar cell is partially or completely covered due to shadow of a tree or a fallen
leaf etc.
• Power immediately reduces and it could even fall to 0
• Same effect occurs if there is a break in the module or a solar cell
• Under load conditions, the irradiated cells provide current in the reverse direction
because the shaded solar cell works like a resistance; this functions like a load, its
temperature increases and it can be severely damaged.
• This phenomena is known as the ‘hot spot’
Parallel Connection of Solar Cells (1/2)

• Achieved by connecting all positives and all negatives together

• Current through individual cells is added together
• In practice, a module has all solar cells in series and modules are
connected in parallel
• A safety diode is used in parallel connections to prevent flow of
current into the solar cell during the dark period
• If a module in parallel connection does not produce any energy
because it is shaded, the rest of the modules then feed this
module and increase its temperature; to prevent this situation
another diode is connected in series with every module
Shading Effect and Bypass Diode

+
_

Performance:
Performance: 0%
50%
100%
89
 Protection Diodes

• Blocking Diodes
• Consider two panels charging a battery (for simplicity no controller is shown) with
a blocking diode in series with the two panels, which are also wired in series.
• When the sun shines, as long as the voltage produced by the two panels is greater
than that of the battery, charging will take place.
• However, in the dark, when no voltage is being produced by the panels, the
voltage of the battery would cause a current to flow in the opposite direction
through the panels, discharging the battery, if it was not for the blocking diode in
the circuit.
• Blocking diodes will be of benefit in any system using solar panels to charge a
battery.
• Blocking diodes are usually included in the construction of solar panels so further
blocking diodes are not required.
 Bypass Diodes

• Now let's consider what happens if one of the panels is shaded.

Not only will that panel not be producing any significant power,
but it will also have a high resistance, blocking the flow of power
produced by the un shaded panel.
• By-pass diodes will not be of use unless panels are connected in
series to produce a higher voltage.
• They are most likely to be of benefit where an MPPT Controller or
String Inverter involves panels connected in series to produce
voltages well above that items minimum input voltage.
• Some solar panels are constructed with the cells divided into
groups, each group having a built-in by-pass diode.
 Protection System, Relays, Circuit Breakers, Fuse

• Protection system is used to prevent all electrical components connected to supply

when there is any faulty condition, such as
• Short circuit,
• Over load and
• Earth Faults
• In an electric power system, a fault is any abnormal electric current.
• For example, a short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the normal load. An
open-circuit fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by some failure. In three-phase
systems, a fault may involve one or more phases and ground, or may occur only
between phases. In a "ground fault" or "earth fault", charge flows into the earth.

• Type of protection system

• SCP - Short circuit protection
• OPP - Overpower (overload) protection
• OCP - Over current protection
• OTP - Over temperature protection
• OVP - Overvoltage protection
• short circuit is an electrical circuit that allows a current to travel along an unintended
path, often where essentially no (or a very low) electrical impedance is encountered.
During short circuit the temperature rise will very high.
Intentional short circuit: voltage-sensing crowbar circuit protectors, leakage reactance
(helps limit both the magnitude and rate of rise of the fault current.) etc
unintentional short circuit: unintentional short circuits are usually caused when a wire's
insulation breaks down, or when another conducting material is introduced, allowing
charge to flow along a different path than the one intended.

• SCP - Short circuit protection

Fuses, circuit breaker, type two coordination
• Over load any increase in the load above the recommended maximum permissible limit is
called over load. In electrical circuit if temperature of conductor increase over the limit the
insulation will fail and it will result short circuit
• Over load is a very slow process and is not a fault, but may lead to fault.
• OPP - Overpower (overload) protection: device which is used to protect over load is Relay
• "ground fault" or "earth fault“ leakage current are of small magnitude in milli amps, due
to this earth leakage current are not detected by the overload or short circuit protecting
devices, if not detected it may result into local heating and short circuit.
 Types of circuit breakers

• Low voltage CB (220-415 V)

• MCB (up-to 100A)
• MCCB (Moulded Case Circuit Breaker) up to 2500A
• Magnetic CB
• Thermal CB
• Common trip breaker
• Medium voltage CB (40.5 kV, up-to 6300A)
• Vacuum CB
• Air CB
• SF6 CB
• High voltage Circuit Breaker(72.5 kV up-to 6300A)
• Oil filled circuit
• Air blast Circuit breaker
• Vacuum circuit breaker
• SF6 Gas filled circuit breaker
• CO2 Gas filled circuit breaker
Color coding of wires
 Measurement/metering of Electrical Power

• Energy Meter
• An electrical measuring device, which is used
to record Electrical Energy Consumed over a
specified period of time in terms of units
• Current Transformer
• Used for measuring electric current of higher
magnitude Isolates the measuring
instruments from a very high voltage in the
monitored circuit
• Potential Transformer
• Used for measuring voltage of higher
magnitude Used for monitoring under
voltage overvoltage
 NET Metering

• Special metering for

recording export and
import of energy at the
same point ..
• Used when pumping
renewable energy to the
power grid and grid
power being consumed
from the line when there
is no RE generation
• Tri-vector Meter
• Electronic type Energy Meter
which measures energy
parameters, like active energy
(KWh), reactive energy
(KVArh), apparent energy
(KVAh), power factor,
frequency etc. through which
we can monitor energy flow
Connected to incoming or
outgoing feeders in the
substation
Electrical Symbol Used In Solar PV
 Section 3
Tools & Tackles
Stages of Installation roof Top solar plant
Activity
 Site survey and shadow analysis
 Roof survey
 Water supply-Bore wells, overhead Tank
 Selection of inverter room and store room
 Plant layout and marking
 Civil work
 Module Mounting Structure installation
 PV Module mounting
 Junction Box / String monitor unit installation
 Earthing pit & Lightning protection units
 Module wiring & Earthing connection
 Cable laying to Inverter area
 Inverter & PCU Installation
 LT Panel & net metering panel–Evacuation facility
 Data Monitoring system of Plant
 Weather monitoring station
 Testing and inspection
Classification of Tools

• Site Assessment Tools

• Basic Tools Needed for SPV Installation
• Tools for Battery Systems
• Testing Tools
• Additional Tools to Consider (especially
for multiple installations)
Additional Tools to Consider
• AC-DC clamp-on ammeter
• Reciprocating saw / Jig saw
• Right angle drill
• Conduit bender
• Large crimpers
• Magnetic wristband for
holding bits and parts
• C-clamps
• Stud finder
• Pry bar
 Testing Tools

• Insulation tester/
Megger
• Earth Tester
• Phase sequence meter
• TDS Meter
• Alcometer
Tools for Battery Systems
• Hydrometer or Refractometer
• Small flashlight (to view electrolyte level)
• Rubber apron
• Rubber gloves
• Safety goggles
• Baking Soda (to neutralizer any acid spills)
• Anti oxidant / Petroleum jelly
• Funnel
• Distilled Water
• Multimeter/Voltmeter
• Load Tester
• Laser/ Infrared thermometer
 Site Assessment Tools

• 50-100 ft. measuring tape

• Solar Pathfinder (evaluates the solar energy potential
at a site)
• Compass (not needed if you’re using a Solar Pathfinder)
• Google Maps (reference for location latitude and
magnetic declination)
• Digital camera/ Smart phone
Basic Tools Needed for SPV Installation
• Angle finder • Crimpers
• Torpedo level • Needle-nose pliers
• Fish tape • Lineman's pliers
• Chalk line • Slip-joint pliers
• Cordless drill (14.4V or greater), • Small cable cutters
multiple batteries • Large cable cutters
• Uni-bit and multiple drill bits • AC/DC multimeter
(wood, metal, masonry) • Hacksaw
• Hole saw • Tape measure
•
• Blanket, cardboard or black
Punch
plastic to keep modules
• Torque wrench with deep
from going “live” during
sockets
installation
• Nut drivers (most common PV • Heavy duty extension cords
sizes are 7/16”, ½”, 9/16”)
• Caulking gun
• Wire strippers • Fuse Pullers
 Section 4
Solar Cables & Connector
 Solar
Solar Cable
Cable

• Solar cable is the interconnection cable used in photovoltaic power generation. A solar cable
interconnects solar panels and other electrical components of a photovoltaic system. Solar cables are
designed to be UV resistant and weather resistant. It can be used within a large temperature range and
are generally laid outside.
Main feature
• One common factor for most of the photovoltaic power systems is outdoor use, characterized by high
temperatures and high UV radiation.
• Single-core cables with a maximum permissible DC voltage of 1.8 kV and a temperature range from -40°C
to +90°C are generally used.
• A three-core AC cable is used for connection to the grid if a single-phase inverter is used,
• a five-core cable is used for three-phase feed-in.
Insulation
• The cable's insulation must be able to withstand thermal and mechanical loads.
• The insulation and jacket materials are extremely resistant to weathering, UV-radiation and abrasion.
• it is salt water resistant and resistant to acids and alkaline solutions.
• It is suitable for fixed installation as well as for moving applications without tensile load.
• It is especially designed for outdoor use, which means direct sun radiation and air humidity,
• it is halogen free flame retardant cross-linked jacket material the cable can also be installed in dry and
humid conditions indoors.
 Conductor

A conductor is an object or type of material that allows the flow of electrical

current in one and more direction

Copper & Aluminium Graphite Optical Fibre

 Two types of electrical conductors are used for general purpose

 Aluminium conductor
 Copper conductor
Comparison Between Copper & Aluminum
Copper Aluminum
Cross section for same 100 160
conductivity (mm2)
Density 8940 2712
( kg / m3)
Melting Point ( ˚C) 1083 657

Advantage High Conductivity Lower weight

High Mechanical Strength Flexible malleable
Good Short Circuit Corrosion Resistant
Performance
Disadvantage Heavier and less flexible Lower Conductivity
Impurities have large Low Mechanical Strength
effects on conductivity
Types of Conductor

Solid Multi Strand

 Power cables
• CLASSIFICATION OF POWER CABLES

 Normally LT or LV cables are of voltage grade up to 1100 V.

 HT or HV cables – up to 66 kV grade
 EHV cables from 66 kV onwards.

• Construction shall carry ISI mark, IS No, manufacturer’s name,

size, duly embossed screen printed at every metre and having the
total count of progressive length in meter at each mark.
Typical construction of power cable

5 4 3 2 1

1. Metallic Conductor 4. Metallic Sheath

2. XLPE Insulation 5. LSF or HDPE Covering
3. PVC Inner Sheath
 PV(Solar) Cable
• Solar cable is the interconnection cable used
in photovoltaic power generation. A solar cable
interconnects solar panels and other electrical
components of a photovoltaic system.

2
1. Tined Copper Conductor 3
2. Cross Linked Polyolefin Compound
3. Zero Halogen Polyolefin Compound
 Special Properties of Solar Cables
• Lifetime reliability: lasts up to 30 years even under tough external
conditions.

• Outdoor durability: resists extreme temperatures (-40°C to 120°C

maximum) and ozone resistant.

• UV resistance: full protection against ultraviolet rays. It may develop

cracks and become brittle within a few months

• Halogen-free: Low Smoke Emission & Low Toxicity during fire.

• Properties against fire: flame retardant, fire retardant. Delay the

spread of fire by suppressing the chemical reactions in the flame or
by the formation of a protective layer on the surface of a material.
 Special Properties of Solar Cables

• Flexibility and strip ability: for fast and easy installation.

• Fully recyclable: In accordance with new environmental

regulations.

• Easy to install now a days with color identification (blue or

Black, red).

• Suitable to common connector types.

• UL(Underwriters Laboratories), TÜV, UTE and IMQ-certified.

Required Feature of Solar Cable

Chemical Features: Electrical Features:

Weather resistant Voltage rating :
1.8 KV DC /1.2 KV AC

Resistant to mineral oils High voltage test:

6.5 KV DC for 5 minutes.

Thermal Features: Mechanical Features:

Maximum conductor temperature Minimum bending radius 4 times of
of operation: 120° C overall diameter.
Minimum operating temperature: Safe pulling force :
-40° C 50 N/ sq mm
 Types of conduit
• Electrical Metallic Tubing (EMT) is a
sturdy conduit with galvanized steel
construction that shields against
magnetic fields and is impact-resistant.
• Flexible Metallic Tubing (FMT) bends
and twists easily, allowing turns at
corners without the need to insert elbow
joints. It's frequently used at the point of
contact with an electrical device,
allowing a hard right (or left) turn.
 Types of conduit
• Rigid Nonmetallic Conduit
(PVC) is lighter and cheaper than
metal conduit but not quite as
durable for the outdoors. PVC
stands for rigid polyvinyl
chloride.. Fittings and elbows are
also available.

• Liquid-tight Flexible Nonmetallic

Conduit (LFNC) is used instead of
the rigid PVC for tight turns and
is waterproof, flame resistant,
and non-corrosive. It also weighs
less than flexible metallic tubing.
Cable Lugs
Cable management

Cable tie UV
protected type

Cable gland
 Erection of Cable
• Erection of Cable on Surface
– Erection shall be done as per the routes and layout finalized, in perfect level and in
plumb.
– Before fixing the cable shall be straightened as far as possible for good aesthetics look.
Erection of Cable
 Networking Cable
• Ethernet Cable- A thick cable used to connect a computer to
a large network. for example. Most Ethernet cables are full
duplex, meaning they can upload and download
information at the same time
 Networking Cable
• RS:232- RS-232 is
a standard for serial
communication transmission of
data.
• It formally defines the signals
connecting between a DTE (data
terminal equipment) such as
a computer terminal, and
a DCE (data circuit-terminating
equipment or data communication
equipment), such as a modem.
 Cable sizing

For a system of N parallel connected strings, with each formed of M series connected
modules: DC main cables must be rated as a minimum as follows:
Voltage: Voc (STC) x M x 1.15 (multiplying factor)
Current: Isc (STC) x N x 1.25 (multiplying factor)
If we want to be a bit more accurate, or if you have cable sizes other than the standard tri-rated
ones listed above,
we can calculate the minimum cable size yourself. To ensure a voltage drop of no more than 5%
(0.6V), the formula is:

Minimum cable area (in mm2) = 0.0546 x current (in A) x length (in m)
Technical Data Sheet of an multi-core solar cable:
In below table the second column n denotes no. of strands in single core and mm is for dia of
each wire.
For example
In 4 sq mm cable there will be 56 threads or strands and single wire will a
dia of 0.30 mm,
radius =0.15 mm
area of 56 strands= 56*(3.14*0.15*0.15) => 3.96 almost 4 mm 2
 Installation of cable
• Cables should be installed in line with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
• Installation should be done with care as damage can occur when pulling the cable into
position.
• The correct pulling tensions and bending radii should be adhered to by the installation
contractor to prevent damage to the cable.
• Cables attached to the mounting structure require the correct protection, attachment
and strain relief to make sure that they are not damaged.
• Underground cables should be buried at a suitable depth (generally between 500mm
and 1,000mm) with warning tape or tiles placed above and marking posts at suitable
intervals on the surface.
• Cables may either be buried directly or in ducts. If cables are buried directly, they
should be enveloped in a layer of sand or sifted soil should be included to avoid
damage by backfill material.
• Comprehensive tests should be undertaken prior to energization to verify that there
has been no damage to the cables.
 Connecters
• MC4 connectors are single-
contact connectors commonly
used for connecting solar panels.
• MC4 stands for the manufacturer
Multi-Contact USA and a 4 mm2
contact assembly pin. The
connector was introduced by
Multi-Contact in 2008 to replace
the MC3 in response to the
National Electrical Code 2008
wiring connector that required
that the plugs lock together.
• The MC4 connector is UL rated at
20A and 600V maximum,
depending on the conductor size
used.
• Standards efforts in Europe also
allow 1000V versions.
History of PV Connector

Lugs (before 1996)

PV Connector and Its Role
TYCable
Panel
or Branch
Connector
Receptacles
Connectors
Assemblies
Connector
 PV Connector and Its Role

String Level

Combiner Box
Level

Module Level
 PV Connector and Its Role
MC4MC4
in Parallel
in Series
Connection
Connection

Under Types of PV Module Interconnections

Composition & Features
Composition & Features
Metal Pins -Typical Electro Plating Material

Pro’s + + + + + Con’s - - - - -
- best chemical resistance - high price
Au - high electrical conductivity - softness
- easy plating process - requires Ni diffusion barrier
- low contact forces - pores

- best el./thermal conductor - requires min. contact forces

Ag - good cold formability - reacts with sulfur
- little wear

- low price - low wear resistance

- ease plating process - requires high contact forces
Sn - good solderability - corrosion, oxidation
- Tmax = 75°C
 Sources of Failures - Mismatching
• All tolerance zones have to be aligned ensuring tightness as well as
sufficient high contact forces even in case of mating extreme
tolerances.

• The chemical compatibility of all raw materials (including

production and auxiliary materials) have to be ensured.

• All changes of the production process have to be investigated

with respect to possible interactions.

→ Nobody can ensure that the combination of two different brands

is safe.
 Sources of Failures - Mismatching
Lab results

Mismating (initial) 20
+330%
+21K 18

16
101

Resistance []
14
102
12 103
+0K +10K +15K 104
105
+185%
10

8
6 +75%
4 ≤ +50%

+11K 2
initial after TCT & DHT
MC4 – MC4 (initial)

Initial resistance Temperature cycle test Damp Heat Resistance

measurement (-40 C/+85 C, 200x) (85 C/85%, 1000h) measurement
(EN60512-2-2) (EN50521) (EN50521) (EN60512-2-2)
R≤ +50%
 Incorrect crimping

Simple crimp tool Certified crimp tool

Disadvantage #1 of a simple crimp tool:

even though both tools employ a B-crimp:

shear operation instead of parallel motion

 rolling-in of crimp area is not uniform

 Incorrect crimping

Simple crimp tool Certified crimp tool

Disadvantage #2 of a simple crimp tool:

10.000 N
missing locking mechanism and thus:
> 8.000 N


reliable process
(1) no feedback whether final position has been reached

varying force
(2) varying crimp force from crimp process to crimp process

0N
 Incorrect crimping

Simple crimp tool Certified crimp tool

Disadvantage #3 of a simple crimp tool: 250 230N acc.EN60352-2

extraction force [N]

200
consequence of too low crimp forces:
150
 not fulfilling the norm criteria 100

50
79 89 69 125 109 82 59 89 90 77
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

 missing gas tightness

 no stable long-term behavior
 Section­4
Junction Box

Different Names
1. AJB- Array Junction Box
2. MJB- Main junction box
3. SCB- String combiner box
4. DCDB- DC Distribution box
5. ACDB- AC Distribution box
 Requirement of Junction box

 It is an electrical equipment which provide a interconnection

between the input leads from the solar PV modules, and the
output lead to the string combiner Box/MAIN Junction box or
inverter.
 These boxes are available from minimum DC voltage of 600 V to a
maximum DC Voltage of 1200V.
 To increase the current as per the inverter size
 It wants to monitor the status of the plant periodically.
 They offer higher resolution in fault analysis, which in turn reduces
the time required for fault finding
Types of JB based on I/P and O/P string
 The combiner box is
customized for different
configurations, based on the
number of strings of solar PV
modules used in the PV
layout.
 For a set of 6 PV modules
arranged two in series and 3
in parallel, a 3:1 configuration
combiner box is selected.
 It may have a gland for SCADA
 Body earth is required even
for poly cabinet JB for their
DIN rails, mounting plate, etc.
Junction boxes
The DC power grid from photovoltaic systems (installation between
PV module and solar inverter)is not grounded and therefore requires
special measures to protect against electrical shock.
Different Parts:
• SPD- surge protection device is used to protect the system from leakage and lightning.
• Fuse terminal block is to hold all the fuses connected between input and output.
• Disconnect switch is to disconnect the array
• Diode to protect reverse flow of current
• Array junction boxes are total insulated according to the requirements of IEC 61 439-1 and tested up
to an operating voltage of 1000 V DC.
• The enclosure is made of high quality polycarbonate.
• The enclosure shall carry the DIN rails or other fixing elements are located exclusively in the interior of
the enclosure.

Other properties:
• Glow-wire test 960 ° C according to IEC 60 695-2-11,
• Self-extinguishing, flame retardant
• UV-resistant according ton IEC 61439-1, clause 10.2.4
• Silicone- and halogen free
• Resistant to weather-related conditions such as rain, ice and snow
• Degree of protection IP 65
 Fuses
• fuses are an essential safety feature of all DC wiring . The fuse can be anywhere on the positive side of
the circuit, but it makes sense to put them all in a convenient place by using some sort of switchboard.
They can be fitted directly to cables using an appropriate in-line fuse holder.
• Fuses protect your cables not your appliances. Cables get hot when carrying currents close to their
design limits, and if a fault somewhere causes an even higher current they can start a fire! Fitting a
correctly-rated fuse ensures the circuit is broken before the fault starts a fire.
• Always fit a fuse with a equal or lower rating than the cable. These ratings are a little on the conservative
side, to allow for cables that might get usually hot, for example when in contact with insulation:
Maximum fuse ratings
Cable thickness Fuse rating
(mm ) 2
(amps)
0.75 5
1.5 10
2.5 20
4 30
6 40
8 50
16 80
25 100
35 150
50 200
 Fuse and how it’s blow
 It is a type of low resistance resistor that acts as a sacrificial device to provide over
current protect.
 The essential component that will deteriorate in the fuse is a metal wire or strip that
melts when an excessive amount of current flows through it.
 A fuse will blow under ambient temperatures with the following current applied to it:

%of amp rating Time to Blow Fuse

110% 4 hours minimum
135% 1 hour maximum
200% 5 minutes maximum

How fuse blow?

 Some common explanations for current fluctuations that result in blown fuses:
1. Short circuit,
2. System overload (Too much volume from the amp)
3. Other device failures
4. Lightning stroke
5. Static electricity
6. System over load
 Type of fuse
D- Type Cartridges Fuses

 It is a non interchangeable fuse

comprising fuse base, adapter ring,
cartridge and a fuse cap.

 The cartridge is pushed in the fuse

cap and the cap is screwed on the
fuse base.

 On complete screwing the cartridge

tip touches the conductor and
circuit between the two terminals
is completed through the fuse link.

 The standard ratings are 6, 16, 32,

and 63 amperes.
MC-4 fuse
Circuit Breaker and it’s working

What is Circuit Breaker?

• circuit breaker is an
automatically operated
electrical switch designed to
protect an electrical circuit
from damage caused by
overload or short circuit.

• Its basic function is to detect a

fault condition and interrupt
current flow.
 Difference between fuse and Breaker

Difference between fuse and Breaker

 The fuse is a device working on the electrical and thermal

properties of the conducting material, while a circuit breaker
is a device working on the electromechanical principles.
 Once used a fuse has to be replaced but the circuit breaker
can be reused after correction of the fault in the system.
 Fuses offer protection against only power overloads, while
circuit breaker offers protection against power overloads and
short circuits (voltage imbalances).
 Arc Phenomenon
• When the circuit breaker trip the medium between current carrying conductor
become highly ionized through which the current getting a low resistive path
and continues to flow through this path even contact are physically separated.
• During the following of current from one contact to another the path becomes
so heated that is glows. This is called arc.
Types of circuit breaker based on voltage

 Low Voltage – less than 1000 V (1 kv)

 MCB
 MCCB
 HRC Fuse

• Medium-voltage – From 1001 V to 36,000 V (36 kv)

 Oil Circuit Breaker
 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

• High-voltage circuit breakers – More than 36,000 V

 SF6 Circuit Breaker
 Air Blast Circuit Breaker
 Types of circuit breaker based on voltage
LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER:
MCB(Miniature Circuit Breaker)
• It is used for protecting the circuit against overload and short circuit.
• Mainly used in lighting and motor distribution system.
• It is used for upto100Amps.
Types of circuit breaker based on voltage
MCCB (Moulded Case Circuit Breaker)
 It is used to control electric energy in distribution network
also having overload and short circuit protection.
 It is used for 250 Amps to 800Amps.
ACDB

• AC junction box
should contain
 Circuit breaker
 IP protection
 AC isolator
 Power metering
 Safety sign
 AC circuit breaker
 A circuit breaker is an
equipment that breaks a
circuit either manually or
automatically under all
conditions at no load, full load
or short circuit.

 Two contacts called electrode

remains closed under normal
operating conditions. When
fault occurs on any part of the
system, the trip coil of the
circuit breaker get energized
and contacts are separated.
 Safety sign
DANGER
• Danger indicates a hazardous situation
that, if not avoided, will result in death or
serious injury. The word DANGER shall be
in safety white letters on a safety red
background.

WARNING
• Warning indicates a hazardous situation
that, if not avoided, could result in death or
serious injury. The word WARNING shall be
in safety black letters on a safety orange
background

CAUTION
• Caution indicates a hazardous situation
that, if not avoided, could result in minor or
moderate injury. The word CAUTION shall
be in safety black letters on a safety yellow
background.
Hazard labels according to ANSI standard
Hazard labels according to ANSI standard
 Section ­5 
Charge controller, Priortizer & Inverter
 Charge
Charge controller
controller

• Function of a CC:
• In solar off grid system this device is to use
charging and discharging the battery bank
• The solar PV o/p current is variable it varies
due to variation in sun intensity though out
the day and generally load is also not at
constant level.
• charge controller limits the rate at which
electric current is added to or drawn from
electric batteries.
• It prevents overcharging and may protect
against overvoltage, which can reduce
battery performance or lifespan, and may
pose a safety risk.
• It may also prevent completely draining
("deep discharging") a battery.
• Some charge controllers have additional
features, such as a low voltage disconnect
(LDV), a separate circuit which powers down
the load when the batteries become overly
discharged.
 Types of charge-controller
PWM Charge Controller
Main feature PWM charge controller is to maintain desired voltage for battery charging, best fits to
high temperature and small systems, charge controllers use Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) to
slowly lower the amount of power applied to the batteries as the batteries get closer and closer to
fully charged. This type of controller allows the batteries to be more fully charged with less stress on
the battery, extending battery life. It can also keep batteries in a fully charged state (called “float”)
indefinitely. PWM is more complex, but does not have any mechanical connections to break.

MPPT Type Charge Controller

Main feature MPPT charge controller is to extract maximum PV power, it is an expensive option than
others, A MPPT controller is much less efficient in low power applications. Systems 170W or higher
tickle the MPPT’s sweet spot,

What is MPPT?
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge controllers used
for extracting maximum available power from PV module under certain conditions. The voltage
at which PV module can produce maximum power is called ‘maximum power point’ (or peak
power voltage). Maximum power varies with solar radiation, ambient temperature and solar
cell temperature
Normal Solar Charge Controller: Solar Panel works at
point A state,
the solar panel working voltage is a little higher than
battery voltage.
Charge Voltage: UA=13.2V
Charge Current:: IA=9.8A
Charge Power: PA=13.2*9.8=129.36w
Area in drawing: 1 + 3

MPPT Solar Charge Controller: Solar Panel works at point

B state,
the solar panel working voltage much higher than battery
voltage.
Charge Voltage: UB=18.4V
Charge Current:: IB=9.3A
Charge Power: PB=18.4*9.3=171.12w
Area in drawing: 1 + 2
 Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristics of PV Module
 Initial condition:
 Open circuit, OR
 Infinite Resistance
 V = Voc
 I=0
I
(A)  Resistance decreases:
 I increases
Isc  V slightly decreases
 Resistance decreases:
 I saturates
 V decreases
 Resistance becomes zero:
 Short circuit
 V=0
 I = Isc
Voc V (V)
181
 PV Module Parameters
I
(A)
Max.
Isc Power
Point

Imp

Pmax

R
O WE
P

Vmp Voc V (V)

 Inverter

 Inverters are solid state electronic devices. They convert DC electricity generated by
the PV modules into AC electricity, ideally conforming to the local grid requirements.

 Inverters can also perform a variety of functions:

 To maximize the output of the plant.
 These range from optimizing the voltage across the strings
 Monitoring string performance to logging data,
 Providing protection and isolation in case of irregularities in the grid or with the PV
modules.

 Classification of Inverter:
 For Off grid plant
 For On grid plant
• Stand alone inverter
• Central inverter • Grid tied/on line inverter
• String inverter • Grid interactive smart inverter
• Micro/ module inverter • Hybrid inverter
Types of waveforms
Good off-grid inverter needs to have
• Heavy duty working
• Pure sine wave
• Low conversion loss High Efficiency
• Low no load loss
• Auto shut out on no load
• Auto restart
• High surge handling capacity
• Capable of handling varying PF load
• Less Weight
• Safe – DC v
• Low noise
• Capable of
handling various
Battery capacities
 Central
Central inverter
inverter

• Central inverters
• Central inverters are designed for
applications such as large
arrays installed on buildings, industrial
facilities as well as field installations –
they are basically just a very large string
inverter.
• Central inverter advantages
• Low capital price per watt
• High efficiency
• Comparative ease of installation – a
single unit in some scenarios
• Central inverter disadvantages
• Size & Noise
• A single potential point of entire system
failure
• SMA(Sunny Central) and Fronius (CL
series – shown above) are leading
central inverter brands
String inverter String inverters
A string inverter is the type most commonly used in
home and commercial solar power systems. It is a box
that is often situated some distance away from the
solar array. Depending on the size of the installation,
there may be more than one string inverter present.
String inverter advantages
•Allows for high design flexibility
•High efficiency & Robust
•3 phase variations available
•Low cost & Well supported (if buying trusted brands)
•Remote system monitoring capabilities
String inverter disadvantages
•No panel level MPPT*
•No panel level monitoring*
•High voltage levels present a potential safety hazard
As with any other device, the “trusted brand” issue is
an important one.
The world’s most trusted brands include SMA, Power-
One and Fronius.
Micro inverter •
•
Micro inverters
A micro inverter consists of a small box located on
the back of or situated very close to a solar panel.
Its role is to convert the DC electricity produced by a
single solar panel.
• Micro inverter advantages:
• Panel level MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking)
• Increase system availability – a single
malfunctioning panel will not have such an impact
on the entire array
• Panel level monitoring
• Lower DC voltage, increasing safety. No need for ~
600 V DC cabling requiring conduits
• Allows for increased design flexibility, modules can
be oriented in different directions
• Increased yield from sites that suffer from
overshadowing, as one shadowed module doesn’t
drag down a whole string
• No need to calculate string lengths – simpler to
design systems
• Ability to use different makes/models of modules in
one system, particularly when repairing or updating
older systems
Micro inverter disadvantages
•Higher costs in terms of dollars per watt, currently up to double the cost compared to
string inverters Increased complexity in installation
•Given their positioning in an installation, some micro-inverters may have issues in
extreme heat Increased maintenance costs due to there being multiple units in an array.
•Power-One is emerging as a leader in micro-inverter technology.
 Stand alone inverter
• Stand-alone inverter or off-grid
inverter is designed for remote
stand-alone application or off-grid
power system with battery backup
where the inverter draws its DC
power from batteries charged by PV
array and converts to AC power.

• Stand-alone inverters provide

variety of size and output waveform
depending on your applications.

• For the best output, the pure sine

inverter is required. It suits for solar
home system, rural electrification,
village electrification in remote area
where the utility grid is not
available.
 Grid tied inverter
• Grid connected inverter or grid
tie inverter is designed
specifically for grid connected
application that does not require
battery backup system.
• Grid connected inverter or grid
tie inverter converts DC power
produced by PV array to AC
power to supply to electrical
appliances and sell excess power
back to utility grid.
• With a range of sizes available,
manufacturers provide grid tie
inverter to suit customer needs,
from small residential solar
system to large commercial solar
system.
 Grid interactive smart inverter
• Grid interactive smart inverter is designed for
residential, commercial and industry applications.
• The inverter can operate on both grid-tied and stand-
alone off-grid operations. When utility power is
normal, the inverter can operate as grid tie inverter
which converts DC power generated by PV panels
into AC power for supplying to load and feed the
excess energy back to utility grid line.
• When utility power is not available, the inverter can
operate as backup power source to supply power
from PV panels and battery.
• Grid interactive system provide clean, reliable
backup power in the event of a utility power failure. It
can reduce energy consumption and save the utility
cost, while maintaining the ability to use the
renewable energy source during power outage.
 Hybrid inverter
• Hybrid inverter or hybrid power inverter is designed for
hybrid power system that combines solar array with diesel
generator and other renewable energy sources such as
wind turbine generator, hydro generator, etc. Hybrid
inverter can operate as either a stand-alone inverter or a
grid tie inverter. It is connected to battery bank, the utility
grid lines, diesel generator and the house appliances. It
suits to use for remote village electrification or remote
island electrification to provide continuous reliable power
at remote locations.

• Inverter for Wind electric system Grid connected

inverter or grid tie inverter for wind turbine is designed
specifically for grid connected wind power application that
does not require battery backup system. Grid connected
inverter or grid tie inverter for wind turbine converts DC
power produced by wind turbine generator to AC power to
supply to electrical appliances and sell excess power back
to utility grid. With a range of sizes available, we provide
grid tie inverter to suit your needs, from small residential
solar system to large commercial solar system.
Advantages of Solar and Wind Hybrid
 Anti islanding
• Islanding refers to the condition in which a
distributed generator (DG) continues to power a
location even though electrical grid power from
the electric utility is no longer present. Islanding
can be dangerous to utility workers, who may not
realize that a circuit is still powered, and it may
prevent automatic re-connection of devices.
• For that reason, distributed generators must
detect islanding and immediately stop producing
power; this is referred to as anti-islanding.
• The common example of islanding is a grid supply
line that has solar panels attached to it. In the
case of a blackout, the solar panels will continue
to deliver power as long as irradiance is
sufficient. In this case, the supply line becomes
an "island" with power surrounded by a "sea" of
unpowered lines. For this reason, solar inverters
that are designed to supply power to the grid are
generally required to have some sort of
automatic anti-islanding circuitry in them.
Grid Sync – Hybrid Inverter general wiring
Grid Sync Hybrid Inverters – Off grid inverters
Grid Sync Hybrid Inverters – Grid Sync Load sharing
Grid Sync Hybrid Inverters – Load Sharing
Grid Sync Hybrid Inverters – Load sharing
Grid Sync Hybrid Inverters – Grid Feeding
Grid Sync Hybrid Inverters – Peak Power Shaving

Real Time based controls for Grid inverters

 Installation Tips

• Be aware of the dimensions and weight of the inverter in order

to carefully plan out its positioning and needs for transport
• Position the inverter in an enclosed space, sheltered from the
outside weather
• Never modify or alter the installation of the inverter; the
inverter usually comes with the appropriate holes and anchors
• Ensure that the inverter is ventilated adequately and simplify
the Earthing requirement, an inverter with an isolating
transformer
• Provide a manual ac switch-disconnector in an accessible
position
 Section­6
Battery bank
 Batteries
• Chemistry of batteries
• An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored
chemical energy into electrical energy.
• Each cell contains a positive terminal, or anode , and a negative terminal, or cathode
• Electrolytes allow ions to move between the electrodes and terminals, which allows current to flow
out of the battery to perform work.
• Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as gasoline
• each lead acid cell can generates 2V energy
Ecell= Ecathode+Eanode 1.69+0.35=2.05V
• The cell reaction can be written as
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
• Negative plate reaction:
Pb(s) + HSO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2e−
• Positive plate reaction:
PbO2(s) + HSO4(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e− → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
• Wt of Battery 13.9 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery, a lead-acid cell in practice gives
only 30–40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the mass of the water and other constituent
parts.
 Type Of Batteries
• SLC sealed lead acid battery
• LA, LMLA, VRLA batteries
• Traction battery
• Automobile battery
• Submarine batteries
• Deep cycle battery/ solar battery
• Portable battery/li-ion
/laptop/mobile battery 2V lead acid battery bank
Solar batteries
Solar batteries are really deep cycle batteries that provide energy storage for solar, wind and
other renewable energy systems. Different from a car battery, a deep cycle battery is
capable of surviving prolonged, repeated and deep discharges which are typical in
renewable energy systems that are "off grid" (disconnected from the electric utility
company).
Major difference between solar and an automobile battery is thickness of plates, in
automobile thin plates are used for maximizing the surface area and high current can be
draw in short time, due to this they cant utilize as a deep cycle applications like solar PV.
 Storage Capacity of Batteries

• The battery capacity, or the amount of energy a battery can hold, can be measured
with a battery analyzer
• The operational characteristics of the lead-acid battery can best be explained in
“Capacity” and “Cold Cranking amps” (CCA).
• AH rating: Capacity is the amount of energy a battery can store. The definition of
Capacity is usually given in Amp-hours (Ah) and it specifies the amount of current
(measured in Amperes) it can provide over a period of one hour before rendering
the battery “discharged”.
• storage capacity of an battery measures in amperes hour (AH),if any battery having
specification of 12V,200 AH then it denotes that it can hold a 200 A of current at 12
volts and can deliver ideally 2400 watts of power for one hour.

• Cold Cranking amps (CCA) is the amount of energy a battery can deliver in short
bursts. Cold cranking amps (CCA) is the maximum amount of current (amps) that a
battery can deliver at 0 ° F for 30 seconds and not drop below 7.2 volts.
 C- Rating of Batteries
• C-rate is a measure that governs at what current a battery is charged and discharged.
• "The capacity of a rechargeable battery is commonly rated at 1C, meaning that a
100Ah battery should provide a current of 100A for one hour”.
• The same battery discharging at 0.5C would provide 50A for two hours, and at 2C,
the 100h battery would deliver 200A for 30 minutes. 1C is also known as a one-hour
discharge; a 0.5C is a two-hour, and a 2C is a half-hour discharge.
• Smaller batteries are rated at a 1C discharge rate. Due to sluggish behavior
• Lead acid is rated at 0.2C (5h) and 0.05C (20h).
• While lead- and nickel-based batteries can be discharged at a high rate
• The protection circuit prevents the Li-ion Energy Cell from discharging above 1C.
• The Power Cell with nickel, manganese and/or phosphate active material can
tolerate discharge rates of up to 10C and the current threshold is set higher
accordingly.
 Charging the 12V lead-acid battery
• “ Important Parameters for Recharging”
• Voltage, Current, & Time

• Charging Current: All batteries have a “maximum current” at which they can be safely
charged.

• Charging Voltage: A lead-acid battery is charged by applying a voltage across its

positive & negative terminals that is higher than the voltage it already has across them.
The greater the difference between the applied voltage and the battery voltage, the
greater the charging current that will flow and the quicker the battery will be charged.

• Charging Time: The charge time of a sealed lead-acid battery is 12-16 hours (up to 36
hours for larger capacity batteries). With higher charge currents and multi-stage charge
methods, the charge time can be reduced to 10 hours or less.
 Three-stage Charging
• “The Best Charge Method for Deep-cycle Lead-acid Batteries”
• Whatever the charging source (AC, solar, or even a vehicle alternator), a multi-stage or
“three-stage” charging process is the best method to recharge a lead-acid battery.
• Bulk charge
• Acceptance (absorption) charge
• Float charge
 Series and Parallel Connection of Batteries

• Series connection:
• Series connection achieved by connecting the positive at the front of one
cell with the negative at the back of the second cell, Voltage of electrical
cells adds together when these are in series
• Parallel connection:
• It is achieved by connecting all positives and all negatives, together current
through individual cells is added together, in practice, a battery has all cells
in series and batteries are connected in series and parallel both.
• As per the system voltage (12, 24, 48, 96, 120, 240V) choose by the
designer of solar plant the batteries are connected and form a bank
accordingly.
 Series/Parallel vs. Bus Bar type Connection

• It’s almost common knowledge that the more

batteries in parallel, the more difficult it is to evenly
charge them.
• Buss bar method of connecting batteries are
preferable than series-parallel method
• Using buss bars distributes charge/discharge impact
over more batteries so that they all are treated as
equally and fairly as possible.
• It will take more cable, but most cases are more than
justified.
• The buss method looks neater, makes troubleshooting
easier, allows us to place batteries in a wider variety
of configurations for easier access and/or for location
specific restrictions and distributes charge/discharge
impact over more batteries.
Tools for Battery Systems

• Hydrometer or Refractometer
• Small flashlight (to view electrolyte level)
• Rubber apron
• Rubber gloves
• Safety goggles
• Baking Soda (to neutralizer any acid spills)
• Funnel
• Distilled Water
• Multimeter/Voltmeter
 Battery life
• Determining factors in battery life
• Depth of discharge,
• Frequency of discharge,
• Rate of discharge and interval between subsequent discharge charging voltages
• Battery operating temperature
•

• Battery Shelf Life like calendar life is the time an inactive battery can be stored before it
becomes unusable, usually considered as having only 80% of its initial capacity.
• Battery Cycle Life is defined as the number of complete charge - discharge cycles a
battery can perform before its nominal capacity falls below 80% of its initial rated
capacity.
• Key factors affecting cycle life are time t and the number N of charge-discharge cycles
completed
• The greater the average depth-of-discharge, the shorter the cycle life, Lifetimes of 500
to 1200 cycles are typical
• The thicker the plates, the longer the life
 Levelized cost of stored energy (Battery)
• For batteries Levelized cost of stored energy is the ratio of cost of
battery and multiplication of cycle life and battery efficiency
LCOSE = Cost of battery (Rs./KWH , Useable discharge capacity)
Cycle Life * Efficiency
Rs./KWH Delivered
energy on discharge

a. Oversize,
b. Insulate,
BATTERY ETIQUETTE c. Buss,
d. Crimp,
e. Solder &
f. Safety
 Battery Condition
• It describes some of the variables used to describe the present condition of a battery.
• State of Charge (SOC)(%) – An expression of the present battery capacity as a percentage of
maximum capacity. SOC is generally calculated using current integration to determine the
change in battery capacity over time.
• Depth of Discharge (DOD) (%) – The percentage of battery capacity that has been
discharged expressed as a percentage of maximum capacity. A discharge to at least 80 %
DOD is referred to as a deep discharge.
• Terminal Voltage (V) – The voltage between the battery terminals with load applied.
Terminal voltage varies with SOC and discharge/charge current.
• Open-circuit voltage (V) – The voltage between the battery terminals with no load applied.
The open-circuit voltage depends on the battery state of charge, increasing with state of
charge.
• Internal Resistance – The resistance within the battery, generally different for charging and
discharging, also dependent on the battery state of charge. As internal resistance increases,
the battery efficiency decreases and thermal stability is reduced as more of the charging
energy is converted into heat.
 Charging and discharging
• Discharge
• During the discharge portion of the
reaction, lead dioxide (PbO2) is
converted into lead sulfate (PbSO4)
at the positive plate. At the
negative plate sponge lead (Pb) is
converted to lead sulfate (PbSO4).
This causes the sulfuric acid
(2H2SO4) in the electrolyte to be
consumed.
• Charge
• During the recharge phase of the
reaction, the cycle is reversed. The
lead sulfate (PbSO4) and water are
electrochemically converted to lead
(Pb), lead dioxide (PbO4) and
sulfuric acid (2H2SO4) by an
external electrical charging source.
Discharge Characteristics
The capacity obtained from a battery during discharge mainly depends on the rate of discharge and on
the operating temperature. The capacity at any other rate other than C10 up to specified end voltage as
mentioned is inversely proportional to rate of discharge. This relation is at one rate to another is not
linear.
Discharge Characteristics at Various Rates of Discharges:
 Battery Life
Cycle service life
There are several parameters which affect the number of cycles such as temperature, discharge rate,
depth of discharge (DOD), and charging methods etc., out of which DOD is the most important factor.
Series and parallel connection

In series connection we can build up the voltage

up-to inverter rating and in parallel connection
we can increase the total capacity of the battery
bank.

Series and parallel

Battery Maintenance
• Battery Maintenance is an important issue. The battery should be clean. Cable connection
needs to be clean and tightened. Many battery problems are caused by dirty and loose
connections. Serviceable battery needs to have the fluid level checked regularly and only at a
full charge. The fluid level will always be higher at a full charge. Distilled water is best; tap
water is loaded with chemicals and minerals that are harmful to your battery, but not as bad
as no water. Don't overfill battery cells especially in warmer weather. The natural fluid
expansion in hot weather will push excess electrolytes from the battery. To prevent corrosion
of cables on top post batteries, use a small bead of silicon sealer at the base of the post and
place a felt battery washer over it. Coat the washer with high temperature grease or
petroleum jelly (Vaseline). Then place cable on post and tighten, coat the exposed cable end
with the grease. Most folks don't know that just the gases from the battery condensing on
metal parts cause most corrosion.

Battery Do's
• Think Safety First.
• Do regular inspection and maintenance especially in hot weather.
• Do recharge batteries immediately after discharge.
• Do buy the highest RC reserve capacity or AH amp hour battery that will fit your
configuration.
 Battery Don'ts
• Don't add new electrolyte (acid).

• Don't use unregulated high output battery charger to charge batteries.

• Don't disconnect battery cables while engine is running — your battery acts as a filter.

• Don't put off recharging batteries.

• Don't add tap water as it may contain minerals that will contaminate the electrolyte.

• Don't discharge a battery any deeper than you possibly have to.

• Don't let a battery get hot to the touch and boil violently when charging.

• Don't mix size and types of batteries

Daily typical solar plant profile with battery bank system

Voltage
51 V 51 V
49 V
100% SOC
90%
60% 80%

47 V

Grid
helps
current
to
15 A attain
SOC

6 PM 6 AM 4 PM 6 PM
 Installation Tips
• Wear eye protection when working with batteries
• Take care to prevent arcing/ sparking at or near battery terminals
• Be aware of the dimensions and weight of the batteries in order to carefully
plan out its positioning and needs for transport
• Place battery terminals in such a way as to isolate contact and avoid
potential corrosion
• First transport the empty batteries in the appropriate location and then fill
them up with the electrolyte
• Do not connect batteries of different manufacturer or model
• Ensure that the availability of storage batteries is equal to the specifications
included in the original design
• Be sure that all labeling of the equipment is done properly; labels must be
clear, easily visible, constructed to last and remain legible for the lifetime of
the system
 Section­7
Earthing & Lightning Arrester
 Earthing
Earthing

• Why Earthing…?
• Provide a path to earth for leakage currents - Body grounding.
• Provide a reference for voltage – Neutral grounding.
• Ensure proper operation of protection under fault conditions (single phase to ground – Highest Fault).
• Provide safety to operating personnel by restricting step & touch
• potential gradients to levels below hazardous thresholds – Ground Mats,
• Electronic Equipments – Statics.
• Assist in the control / reduction of noise in signal control circuits by
• minimizing voltage differential between signal reference sub-systems of separate facilities.
• Reduce the buildup of static charges – Reduction of static voltages(semiconductor fabrication,
petroleum product terminals)
• Provide the safe path to earth against lightning strikes (direct & indirect).
• Limit transient voltage surges, due to switching (internal or external ), with / without the use f SPD’s -
especially during common earthing.
• Prevention of transfer potential due to stray currents.
• Ensure proper operation & life of electrical / electronic equipments by limiting electrical stress on
them.
 Earthing or grounding
 Earthing creates a low-resistance path from a tool to the earth to disperse
unwanted current.

• When a short or lightning occurs, energy flows to the ground, protecting

the user from electrical shock, injury and death.
 Grounding and it’s objectives
• Lightning, line surges or unintentional contact with higher voltage lines can
cause dangerously high voltages to the electrical distribution system wires.
Grounding provides an alternative path around the electrical system and
minimizes damage from such occurrences.
 Types Of Earthing
Electrodes

• Types:
» Rods & Pipes (Length &
Diameter)
» Strips – Length.
» Plate – Area of the plate
» Pipe in Pipe
» Earth Mats.

• Material:
» Cast iron – Electrolytic grade –
100 mm dia 13 mm thickness.
» Copper – High Conductivity &
good corrosion resistance
» Steel
» Copper Coated Steel
» GI
 Lightning arrester
A Device Used on Power Systems above 1000V to Protect other
Equipment from Lightning and Switching Surges

• Interesting Facts about Lightning

• A strike can average 100 million volts of electricity
• Current of up to 100,000 amperes
• Can generate 54,000 oF
• Lightning strikes somewhere on the Earth every second
• Kills 100 US residents per year
•What exactly does a lightning arrester
• Lightning can strike ground up to ten miles from a
do?
storm (Lightning out of the blue)
• There is an average of 2-3 miles between strikes It Does not Absorb the Lightning
•It Does not Stop the Lightning
• Four Main Features of Lightning Protection
1) Air terminal
•It Does Divert the Lightning to Ground
•It Does Clamp (limit) the Voltage
2) Conductors
produced by the Lightning
3) Ground termination •It Only protects equipment electrically
4) Surge protection in parallel with it.
242
Methods of lightning protection

•Protective angle method

•Rolling sphere method

243
244
 Formation of lightning discharge

Source: www.lightningtech.com/f_sets/facilities.html

08.08.12 / 2930_E
 Formation of lightning discharge

Source: www.lightningtech.com/f_sets/facilities.html

08.08.12 / 2930_E
Formation of lightning discharge

Source: www.lightningtech.com/f_sets/facilities.html

08.08.12 / 2930_E
Formation of lightning discharge

Source: www.lightningtech.com/f_sets/facilities.html

08.08.12 / 2930_E
 Formation of lightning discharge

Source: www.lightningtech.com/f_sets/facilities.html

08.08.12 / 2930_E
 Lightning threat: huge number of lightning strikes
per year in INDIA

2 km

electrical conductive systems

* source: BLIDS, Siemens AG, evaluation from 2000 - 2010

07.02.13 / 1320_E_1
 Damaged PV modules due to lightning strike

A SOLAR PV PLANT IN INDIA

Damaged inverters
 External lightning protection - Rolling sphere method used to design
an air-termination system

GJB

230 / 400 V SEB

GJB = generator junction box MEB
SEB = service entrance box
MEB = main earthing busbar

30.09.10 / S6695e_i
Design of the air-termination system

separation distance
s radius of the rolling air-termination
sphere depending on rod
the class of LPS protection
angle


shadow line
15°

5th RE, India 2011 lightning protection photovoltaic

30.09.10 / 4025e
IEM VAL 2015 256
Galvanic coupling Lightning voltage of a system
Class of LPS Current amplitude kA
I 200 i
II 150
III - IV 100
î
Reference: DIN EN 62305-1 (VDE 0185-305-1)

t
Wave form 10 / 350 µs

ûûEE == îî ·· RRstst
EB

Rst Example:
ûE = 100 kA · 1  = 100 kV
Real Life Experience
Basics: Galvanic coupling Lightning voltage in a
building

100 kA

20 kV

230V
100KV
230V
100KV 100 kV
100 kV 100 kV
100 kV

100 kV
100 kV

1
Basics: Lightning equipotential bonding for incoming lines
Lightning equipotential bonding
MEB*

external lightning protection system

LPZ
LPZ 00 LPZ
LPZ 11

utility

water

gas M
heating
system Cathodically protected tank pipe
foundation earth electrode

*MEB = main earthing busbar