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 BABYLON
(3500 SM)

ROMAWI
(312 SM)

TRESAGUET
(1775)
TELFORD
(1816)
MACADAM
(1869)
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 2 LAPIS (100 mm & 50 mm)
BATU, UK. MAKS. 60 mm
40 mm KERIKIL

BT PECAH & KERIKIL

TANAH DASAR BATU: 100 mm LEBAR,

75-175 mm TINGGI

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 2 LAPIS (@ 100 mm) BT PECAH,
UK. MAKS. 75 mm

50 mm BT PECAH 25 mm

TANAH DASAR

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SALIM MAHMUD 7
 The cobbled Appian Way was constructed more than 2200 years
ago as the primary route from Rome to Greece. Although these
large lava blocks may not be the original material, the route itself
has remained unchanged and in use since it was first paved.
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 An early source of asphalt binder in the U.S. was from
Trinidad (near the coast of Venezuela).
 Trinidad supplied about 90 percent of all asphalt
(worldwide) from 1875 to 1900 [Baker, 1903].
 By the 1880s, asphalt binders were regularly produced in
California and by 1902 in Texas as well.
 It was not until 1907 that crude oil-based asphalt surpassed
“natural” asphalt production [Krchma and Gagle, 1974].
 An early Standard Oil Co. of California asphalt cement
specification contained four original penetration
ranges (at 25 °C) of 31-40, 41-50, 51-60, and 61-70.
Thus, it appears that some of the early asphalt
cements were a bit “harder” than generally used today
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 Perkerasan beraspal pertama di AS dibangun tahun
1870 di Newark, New Jersey.
 Lapis beraspal panas (campuran aspal semen dengan
pasir bersih, bersudut, dan berradasi serta bahan pengisi)
dihampar tahun 1876 di Pennsylvania Avenue. Aspal yang
digunakan berasal dari Danau Trinidad).

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An older Portland Cement Concrete
road. This is the Sunset Highway in
Washington, paved in 1919
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 PCC was first used as a base for other wearing courses
in London in 1872 (after Tillson, 1900) and in New
York in 1888 (base for stone surfacing).
 According to Collins and Hart (1936), the first use of
PCC as a wearing course was in Edinburgh, U.K., in
1872 and Grenoble, France, in 1876; however, one
source stated that the first PCC pavement was placed in
Inverness, Scotland, in 1865.
 The first PCC pavement in the U.S. was constructed
in 1891 in Bellefontaine, Ohio. This pavement was only
3.0 m wide and 67.1 m long (probably what we would
call a “test section” today). In 1909, in Wayne County,
Michigan, a PCC highway system was constructed.
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 PERK. LENTUR  PERK. KAKU
B. ASPAL LPS. PERMUKAAN
PELAT
B. ASPAL/
B. PECAH
LPS. POND. ATAS BETON

K. PECAH/ LPS. PONDASI B. PECAH/

KERIKIL/
BAWAH CTB
CTB

T. ASLI/
T. ASLI/
T. URUGAN
T. URUGAN
TANAH DASAR T. GALIAN
T. GALIAN

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BEBAN

BEBAN

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 Early pavement structural design was achieved by
standards or catalogs from the 1800s well into the
1900s.
 The focus of this review has been on those pavement
types which led to asphalt pavement design.
 It should be noted that portland cement concrete
(PCC), up until 1909, was largely used as a base or
“foundation” layer for surface course materials such as
bricks, wood blocks, sheet asphalt, etc.
 The year 1909 is noteworthy in the U.S. since this is
the time which is generally used to mark the beginning
of PCC as a structural wearing course (paving projects
in Wayne County, Michigan [Bateman, 1928]).
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 Up to the 1920s and 1930s, flexible pavement
structural design was based mostly on experience
based standards.
 Three reasons have been given for this [Public
Roads Administration, 1949]:
1. The methods appeared to provide “satisfactory”
results for the then prevailing traffic.
2. Basic scientific knowledge was lacking.
3. The general use of stage construction did not
readily lend itself to the evolving scientific
methods of design.

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 In a 1939 paper, Gray overviewed flexible pavement
practice for the U.S. states.
 For hot-mix construction, the typical surface thickness was
about 50 mm; however, this ranged from as thin as 19 mm
to as thick as 125 mm.
 The base course types ranged from PCC to asphalt-treated
base to gravel.
 The stabilized bases were generally 150 to 200 mm thick.
 A typical state such as Kansas applied 50 mm of asphalt
concrete over a 175 mm thick PCC slab (urban areas).
 Thus, by about 50 years ago, pavement thicknesses were
beginning to appear a bit closer to what is used today.

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 Table 1 provides an overview of a few of the flexible
pavement design procedures available in 1949 [Gray,
1949].
 One can quickly observe that these are mostly empirical
relationships, many of which were influenced by the
Boussinesq theory of load distribution (such as North
Dakota [28]).

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Country/ Basis for Subgrade Traffic
State Thickness Tests
Design
New South Soil Grading, LL, Wheel Load:
Wales, Character PL, LS Normal: 9000 lb,
Australia Heavy: 13500 lb
California Design CBR Wheel Load
Curves
Canada Plate Bearing, Wheel Load
CBR, Cone
Bearing,
Triaxial Shear
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Country/ Basis for Subgrade Traffic
State Thickness Tests
Design
Colorado Design CBR, Volume
Curves Grading, LL,
PL
Kansas See Note 1 Triaxial(Modul Volume and Wheel
[25] us of Load
Deformation)
Michigan Soil Survey – Volume
Data

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 Country/ Basis for Thickness Subgrade Traffic
State Design Tests
Minnesota Design Curves CBR –
New CBR Wheel Load
Mexico

North Plate Wheel Load

Carolina Bearing

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Country/ Basis for Subgrade Traffic
State Thickness Tests
Design
North Cone Bearing Wheel Load
Dakota
[28]

Wyoming Design CBR Volume and Wheel

Curves Load

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Notes Notes
1. 2. Legend
t = pavement thickness
P = wheel loads = subgrade bearing
S = assumed settlement of the
pavement
C = subgrade modulus of deformation
Cp = pavement modulus of deformation
a = load contact radius
A = load contact area
p = unit capacity pressure
B = cone bearing value (psi)
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1923 Kenworth delivery truck with
solid rubber tires. Note how the
tire dimensions vary considerably
from today's balloon tires
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Gross Number Wheel Weight Wheel Weight
Weight of Horses Width per Wheel per Unit Width
(tons) (inches) (pounds) (pounds/inches)
8 10 16 4480 280
6 8 9 3360 373
4.5 6 6 2520 420
3.5 4 3 1960 653
4 4 2 2240 1120

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No. of EWL Current Product of
Axles Constants Average Daily Columns 1 and 2
Commercial
Vehicles
2 300 774 232,000
3 700 212 148,400
4 1400 68 95,200
5 2100 118 247,800
6 1600 112 179,200

Total Annual Design EWLs = 902,800

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 Eventually, in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the
AASHO Road Test produced the equivalent single axle
load concept.
 Axle load equivalency has been one of the most widely
adopted results of the AASHO Road Test.
 A variety of equivalency factors can be used depending
on the pavement section which is defined by a
Structural Number and the terminal serviceability
index (for flexible pavements).
 The basic equation used for calculating AASHTO
equivalency factors [after AASHTO, 1981]:

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W = axle applications

= inverse of equivalency factors (where W18 =

number of 18,000 lb single axle loads
Lx = axle load
L2 = code for axle configuration
1 = single axle
2 = tandem axle
3 = tridem axle (added in 1986 Guide)
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 = a function of the ratio of loss in
serviceability at time t to the potential
loss taken at a point where pt = 1.5
pt = terminal” serviceability index

= function which determines the

general shape of serviceability
trend with increasing axle load
applications
SN = structural number (formerly called a “thickness index”)

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 Curves “A” and “B” show the minimum pavement
thicknesses for light and medium-heavy traffic.
 The additional curves were added by U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers for the design of flexible airfield
pavements.
 The tire inflation pressure for the traffic was 400 kPa.
 The design curves also embody the assumption of the
pavement structure lying on compacted soils (at least
300 mm of compacted subgrade).
 Porter’s paper and a discussion of it by A.C.
Benkelman further “reinforced” the concept of limiting
pavement deflections for design purposes.

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