Mechanics of Reproduction in Salientia

• Amplexus

• External fertilization
 Salientia Life History and Reproduction:

Tropics

• Reproduction throughout year, with rainfall as the primary

cue

• Need water, but not necessarily ponds / streams

• High diversity of reproductive strategies

 Gastric Brooding Frog
Rheobatrachus vitellinus
 Poison Dart Frogs
Family Dendrobatidae
 Borneo Tree-Hole Frog
Metaphrynella sundana
Gymnophiona
Caudata
Dendrobates azureus
(Suriname)
Oophaga pumilio
Ranitomyer reticulata
Dendrobates pumilio
 FROGS AND TOADS

• Frog skin smooth & moist for cutaneous respiration

• Toads is rough & warty with poison glands
 Amphibians –
Frogs & Toads ID Traits
 Amphibians –
Hind Feet

• a. True frogs – webbed toes

• b. Tree frogs – toe pads & webbing
• c. Toads – tubercles & no webbing
• d. Spadefoot Toads – thorny
projections(spade) and reduced
webbing
Salamander
ID features
Snakes – ID features
Lizards – ID features
Turtles – ID Features
Crocodiles
 Crocodiles & Alligators

Alligator

Crocodile
Fig. 25.19
 Amphibians
What is a (Liss)Amphibian?
Liss = smooth (greek – referring to skin)
Amphibia = double life (greek – referring to metamorphosis)
Jurassic
(before break-up of Pangea) Long hind limbs
HOP Short, stiff bodies

Equal-sized limbs
Long, slender bod
WADDLE
No limbs
Long, slender bod
SLITHER

Figure 6.1 – Vertebrate Biology

 Amphibians
Shared Derived Characteristics of Amphibians:
1) Smooth, Moist Skin:
• Absence of bony / keratinized scales (exception = caecilians)
• Absence of keratinized, true claws
• Mucous glands (prevent desiccation / slippery / disease-free)

Other Methods for Controlling Water Loss:

1) Behavioral Modifications:

Example:
Puerto Rican Coqui

Cool, wet nights

Warm, dry nights

2) Pelvic Patch: 3) Permeable Bladder:

Highly vascularized skin; Store dilute urine;
absorbs majority of water “Canteen” away from water
 Amphibians
Shared Derived Characteristics of Amphibians:
1) Smooth, Moist Skin:
• Absence of bony / keratinized scales (exception = caecilians)
• Absence of keratinized, true claws
• Mucous glands (prevent desiccation / slippery / disease-free)
Tarichatoxin
• Poison glands:
(newts)
Water-soluble alkaloid
• Concentrated on
(blocks Na+ channels)
dorsal surface
• Produce diverse array
of chemicals

Epibatidine
(dart-poison frogs)

Batrachotoxin
Lipid-soluble Alkaloid (dart-poison frogs)
(Blocks Ach receptors) Lipid-soluble alkaloid
Non-addictive (Blocks closing of Na+ channels)
painkiller Sequestered via diet
 Amphibians
Shared Derived Characteristics of Amphibians:
2) Multiple Methods of Respiration:
• Cutaneous – Gas exchange occurs across moist skin
• Buccopharyngeal – Gas exchange occurs in buccal cavity / pharynx
• Pulmonary – Gas exchange occurs in paired lungs (too small for all gas exchange)
• Gills – Larval forms and neotenics (neoteny = adults that retain juvenile characteristics)
3) Pedicellate Teeth:
• Crown and base of tooth separated by uncalcified dentine / fibrous tissue
• May allow for “flex” of tooth for prey handling (all carnivores)
4) Green Rods:
• Distinct type of retinal cell

• Hue discrimination in
dim light?

Teeth break easily – continuously replace

 Amphibians
Shared Derived Characteristics of Amphibians:
5) Unique Hearing Adaptations:
• Operculum – Columella Complex:
• Two bones in middle ear that transmit sound to inner ear (via oval window)
• Dual high / low frequency system
• High frequency (> 1000 Hz) = vibration of columella alone (air)
• Frogs (needs tympanum for amplification); Vocalization
• Low frequency (< 1000 Hz) = vibration of operculum-columella unit (ground)
• Vibration via leg bones / scapula (activated via opercularis muscle)
• Frogs & Salamanders; Predator / prey detection
• Inner Ear:
Basilar papillae:
Hair cell system – detects high
frequencies
Amphibian papillae:
Hair cell system – detects low
frequencies
 Amphibians
Shared Derived Characteristics of Amphibians:
6) Levator bulbi muscle:

• Bulges eye outward; increases buccal cavity

 Amphibians
Salamanders (10 families; ~ 515 species):
Diversity:
• First appearance in fossil record = Jurassic

Evolution associated w/ cool, wet forests

Order: Caudata (“Tailed Ones”)

* (~ 245 sp.)

• Primarily holarctic distribution:

North American = 9 of 10 families
(5 endemic)
• Neotropic = greatest # of species
All from single family
(Plethodontidae ~ 145 sp.)
 Amphibians
Salamanders (10 families; ~ 515 species):
Morphology / Locomotion:
• Presence of tail (larvae / juveniles / adults)
• 4 equally-sized limbs (extend at right angle from body)
• Size range = 3 cm to >1 m
• Paedomorphosis widespread (aquatic life)

Chinese Giant Salamander

Respiration:
• Aquatic = primarily gills (some cutaneous)
• Cryptobrachidae = large skin folds
• Terrestrial = lungs (50%) / skin (50%)
Plethodontidae = lungless
Adults retain:
skin (10%) & buccopharynx (90%)
laterally compressed tail / flattened head
functional lateral line system Hypothesis:
external gills (not always…) Evolved in fast, cold water ( O2)
• Anguilliform locomotion (walking-trot / swim) Lungs disadvantageous (buoyancy)
 Amphibians
Salamanders (10 families; ~ 515 species):
Diet / Prey Capture:
• Generalist carnivores (primarily invertebrates)
• Aquatic = mouth gape
Cryptobrachus alleganiensis
• Suction pulls prey into oral cavity movie
• Works will with gills / gill slits (one-way flow)
• Tongue = broad, flat, immobile
• Terrestrial = Thick, sticky tongue grabs prey
• Plethodontidae: Projective tongue
Why Plethodontids? Taricha torosa
Buccal pump not necessary for breathing movie
(no lungs)
Hyoid bone specialized for projecting
the tongue (elongated / lightened)

Hydromantes platycephalus
movie
http://autodax.net/feedingmovieindex.html
 Amphibians
Salamanders (10 families; ~ 515 species):
Sensory Systems:
• Aquatic:
• “Taste” chemicals in water
• Vibrations – Retain lateral line system
• Terrestrial:
• Smell – Olfactory epithelium (volatile)
• Smell – Vomeronasal organ (Non-volatile)
• Sexually dimorphic (larger in males)
• Courtship / Identification (species / sex / individual)
• Highly advanced in Plethodontidae
• Nasolabial Grooves = Non-ciliated grooves; upper lip to nares
• Aids in collection / delivery of chemical cues (capillary action)
• Sexually dimorphic (esp. during reproductive season)
• Hearing – limited high frequency (no ear drum); primarily ground vibration
• Vision – acute; especially in plethodontidae
 Amphibians
Sirenidae (sirens): • Nocturnal
Morphology: • Vocalization

• Eel-like; lack hind limbs (lack pelvic girdle)

• Paedomorphic; gills present
Habitat:
• Swamps / lakes / marshes (slow-moving water)
Aquatic:
Reproduction:
• External fertilization; female nest guarding SE United States / NE Mexico

Cryptobranchidae (Hellbenders): • largest individuals

Morphology: • live 50+ years
• Dorsal-ventral compressed body (paedomorphic)
• Multiple folds in skin (cutaneous respiration)
Habitat:
• Clear, cold mountain streams / lakes
• Severely reduced ranges (loss of habitat)
Reproduction:
• External fertilization; Males = “den masters” Aquatic:
Central China / Eastern United States
 Amphibians
Amphiumidae (Amphiums): • terrestrial egg-laying
Morphology: • aestivate
• Eel-like; maintain four reduced limbs
• Paedomorphic; lack gills (lungs present)
Habitat:
• Sluggish streams / rivers; swamps
Reproduction: Aquatic:
• Internal fertilization; female nest guarding SE United States

Proteidae (Waterdogs): • dissection specimen

Morphology: • nocturnal

• Paedomorphic; feathery gills / caudal fins

Habitat:
• Lakes / streams
• Limestone caves (drastic reduction in numbers)
Reproduction:
• Internal fertilization; ♂ / ♀ nest guarding
Aquatic:
Eastern United States / SE Europe
 Amphibians
Plethodontidae (example = Ensatina escholtzii):
Anatomy:
• Constriction at tail base = tail autotomy
• Very costly (tail = large fat reserve)
• ~ 10 – 12% tail regeneration (~ 2 years)
Habitat: Terrestrial:
• Prefers cool forests with litter / dead trees North / Central / South America & Europ
• Tolerates logging better than most plethodons
Reproduction:
• Mating begins (Nov.) and ends (March) with rains
• ♂ use hedonic glands / pheromones to attract ♀
• Methods of pheromone administration:
• Slap ♀ nares with hedonic gland (video)
• Innoculate ♀ with sharp teeth
Pheromone:
• Elaborately patterned courtship “dance” Chemical cue that affects the
• “Tail straddle-walking” (unique to plethodons) behavior and / or physiology
• ♂ repeats dance (~ 1 – 5 hours) of a conspecific
• Pathway / movement unique to each species
 Amphibians
Plethodontidae (example = Ensatina escholtzii):
Reproduction:
• ♂ lays down spermatophore; ♀ picks it up (video)
• ♀ lay 8 – 12 eggs (~ 5 mm)
• Terrestrial – in logs; under logs; in burrows
Terrestrial:
North / Central / South America & Europ

Sperm Cap

• ♀ guards eggs ( predation / fungal infection) Gelatinous Base

• Direct development of eggs (~60 – 120 days)
Growth / Maturation:
• Sexual Maturation ~ 4 years
• Life Span ~ 10 years (best guess)
 Amphibians
Rhyacotritonidae: (example = Rhyacotriton olympicus)
Anatomy:
• Full metamorphosis
• No operculum / opercular muscle ( hearing)
• Highly reduced lungs (cutaneous respiration)
Habitat: Terrestrial:
• Cold, clear streams / seepages / waterfalls
NW United States
• Very desiccation intolerant
• Low heat tolerance (susceptible to logging)
Reproduction:
• Internal fertilization
• Spermatophore deposition
• Tail-wagging display
• Aquatic egg-laying
• No nest guarding
Growth / Maturation: Anti-predator Display

• Sexual Maturation ~ 4 years

• Life Span ~ 10 years (best guess)
 Amphibians
Larval Anatomical Specializations:

Pond Larvae Stream Larvae

Ambystomatidae Dicamptodontidae
Salamandridae Rhyacotritonidae
Plethodontidae

• High body profile • Depressed body profile

• broad tail fin extending up to head • Narrow tail fin (not onto trunk)
• long, plume-like gills • Short, thread-like / curly gills
• Only front legs at hatching • All four legs at hatching
 Amphibians
Salamandridae (example = Taricha granulosa):
Habitat:
• Prefer older growth forests during “newt” phase
Warning Coloration:
• Flashes tail & brightly colored stomach
Chemical Defense: Terrestrial:
• Tarichatoxin (non-protein – VERY poisonous) North America / Europe / NW Africa / As
• Neurotoxin – blocks NA+ channels (paralysis)
• Small dose lethal to birds / mammals
• Large dose lethal to humans

Red-spotted Garter Snake

“The Arms Race”
 Assignment:

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/biowarfare_01

Questions Posted on Class Website…

 Amphibians
Salamandridae (example = Taricha granulosa):
Reproduction:
• Adults migrate to ponds / lakes (1 – 3 weeks prior)
• Breeding from April – July (annual / biannual)
• ♂ release pheromone (hedonic gland)
• Amplex with ♀ (ward against rivals) Terrestrial:
• ♀ signals willingness to mate by raising head North America / Europe / NW Africa / As
• ♂ lays down spermatophore
• ♀ lay 200 – 375 eggs
• Incubation ~ 20 – 35 days
Growth / Maturation:
• Metamorphosis ~ 4 – 5 months
• Sexual Maturation ~ 4 – 5 years
• Life Span ~ 20 – 25 years
 Amphibians
Dicamptodontidae: (example = Dicamptodon tenebronsus)
Anatomy:
• Full metamorphosis / facultative paedomorphosis
• Large (up to 30 cm SVL)
• Well-developed lungs / blade-like teeth
Habitat: Terrestrial:
• Damp coniferous forests (near streams / seeps)
NW United States / SW Canada
• Paedomorphic = moving water
• Diet: Opportunistic feeders (sit-and-wait)
Reproduction:
• Internal fertilization
• Breeding occurs in water
• Eggs (~ 200) deposited singly Will eat small mammals
wood / rocks in water (female nest-guarding)
Growth / Maturation:
• Metamorphosis ~ 2 years
• Sexual Maturation ~ 2 years
• Life Span = long-lived…
 Amphibians
Ambystomatidae: (example = Ambystoma macrodactylum
Anatomy:
• Full metamorphosis / paedomorphosis (rare)
• Stout-bodied; thick-tailed
Habitat:
• Wide range of habitats (grasslands  forests)
Terrestrial:
• Subterranean (“mole” salamanders)
Western North America
• Close to water (~ within 100 m)
• Enter torpor during winter (below frost line)
Reproduction:
• Earliest amphibian breeders (Pacific Northwest)
• Migrate to breeding ponds (fidelity - ♂ arrive first)
• Eggs (~ 100 – 400) deposited in clusters
Growth / Maturation:
• Metamorphosis ~ 2 years
• Sexual Maturation ~ 3 – 5 years
• Life Span ~ 10 years
Cannibalistic
larvae
 Amphibians
Caecilians (6 families; 180 species):
• Long, slender body; small dermal scales
• Legless; no post-anal tail
• Most species blind as adults
• Specialized sensory tentacles (snout)
• Diet = small insects / earthworms
Order: Gymnophiona (“Naked snake”)
Life History: Tropics (S. America / Africa / S.E. Asia
• Very little known about courtship Fossorial / Aquatic
• Internal fertilization (via intromittent organ)
• 75% viviparous (live young - matrotrophic)
• Initial nutrition = yolk
• Subsequent nutrition = “uterine milk”
• Breath via fetal gills
• Young caecilians 30 – 60% adult BL!
• 25% oviparous (lay eggs – may brood eggs)
 Amphibians
Frogs (29 families; ~ 4800 species):
Diversity: First appearance in
fossil record = Jurassic

Order: Anura (“Without Tail”)

* (~ 1100 sp.)

• Ubiquitous (except Antarctica):

North American = 10 or 29 families
• Neotropic = greatest # of species
Most Diverse Family
Leptodactylidae ~ 1100 sp.
 Amphibians
Frogs (29 families; ~ 4800 species):
Morphology:
• Body specialized for jumping:
• Hind legs elongated; tibia / fibula fused
• Large pelvis; short vertebral column
• Urostyle (Fused posterior vertebra)
• Size variable (1/2”  1 ‘)

Toe Pads:
Viscous mucus = “sticky”

Locomotion:

Jumping Frogs Hopping Frogs Semi-aquatic Frogs Arboreal Frog

Long hind limbs Short limbs / Robust body
Webbed feet / stream-linedSlim waist / long legs
 Amphibians Pacific Tree Frog
Frogs (29 families; ~ 4800 species): Bullfrog
Vocalization: Spadefoot Toad
• Associated with reproduction (advertisement calls)
• Identify species / sex of caller
• Can function in mate choice (e.g., male size)
• Vocalization is a tradeoff:
• Costs:
1) Vocalization energetically expensive
2) Vocalization announces location
• Benefits:

Tungara Frogs:
“Whine – cluck”
Females prefer / bats prefer
“Whine”
Females / bats less preference
“Whine – cluck” only observed
when large choruses present
 Amphibians
Frogs (29 families; ~ 4800 species):
Reproduction:
• Mating systems:
1) Explosive Breeders (season = few days)
• Temporary aquatic habitats
• Large aggregations; limited mate choice
2) Prolonged Breeders (season = months)
• Males defend territories
• Males out-number females; strong mate choice
• Fertilization primarily external
• Amplexus: Embrace of male and female frog
Inguinal Amplexus
• Brings cloacae in close proximity (fertilization)
• May last hours to several days

Fertilization can
occur internally…
Axillary Amplexus
 Amphibians
Direct Development
Frogs (29 families; ~ 4800 species): (egg protection)
(tadpole protection)
Reproduction:
• Egg Development: Guard Eggs

Directly in water Vegetation over water Foam Nest Bromeliad Nest

(egg protection) (egg protection) (egg protection)
(tadpole protection)

• Parental Care (common):

Carry Eggs Carry Eggs / tadpoles Internal Brooding Viviparous

(Mid-wife Toad  ♂) (Sirinam Toad  ♀) (♀  Gastric Brooders) (Morogoro Tree Toad)
 Amphibians
Still Water:
Frogs (29 families; ~ 4800 species):
Ovoid bodies
Tadpoles: Tails with large fins
• Aquatic larval stage of frogs
• Advantages:
1) Exploit non-adult resources Fast Water:
Stream-lined bodies
• Tadpoles = aquatic / herbivores
Small tail fins
• Adults = terrestrial / carnivores
2) Efficient eating machines (rapid growth)
Metamorphosis: (3 stages) • Triggered by thyroid hormone

Premetamorphosis Prometamorphosis Metamorphic Climax

• Increase in size • Hind legs appear • Fore legs appear
• Little change in form • Rapid decline in growth • Tail regresses
• Mouth broadens; long  short gut; degeneration of gills; dermal gland formation
 Amphibians
Rhinophrynidae: (Burrowing Toad) • Single species
Morphology: • Unique tongue

• Short, powerful limbs; tubercle present

• Robust body; pointed head (cornified tip)
Habitat:
• Sub-humid areas; surface after heavy rains
Fossorial
Reproduction:
• Explosive breeder; aquatic tadpole North America / Central America

Leptodactylidae (Neotropical frogs): • Among largest

Morphology: • Many nocturnal
• Highly variable (10 mm  250 mm)
Habitat:
• Variable:
• Leaf litter layer • Arid regions
• Fully aquatic • High plateaus
Reproduction:
• External / internal fertilization Terrestrial

• Aquatic tadpoles / direct development North / Central / South America

 Amphibians
Microhylidae: (Microhylid frogs) • Commensal assoc.
with spiders
Morphology:
• Highly variable (10 mm  100 mm)
Habitat:
• Variable (Arid deserts  Wet rain forests)
Reproduction:
Terrestrial / Fossorial / Arboreal
• Explosive breeders / prolonged breeders
Ubiquitous
• Aquatic tadpoles / direct development

Dendrobatidae (Poison-dart frogs):

Morphology:
• Relatively small; highly aposematic
Habitat:
• Tropical rainforests • Poisonous

Reproduction: • Introduced to
Hawaii
• Most lack amplexus
Terrestrial
• Small clutches; parental care
Central / South America
 Amphibians
Pipidae: (clawed frogs) • Tongueless
• Model lab organism
Morphology:
• Dorso-ventrally compressed body
• Limbs splayed laterally; large, webbed feet
Habitat:
• Almost every type of body of water
Aquatic
Reproduction:
South America / Africa
• Aquatic tadpoles / direct development

Cane Toad (Bufo marinus)

“… one of the 100 worst invasive
species worldwide.” Invasive Species
Specialist Group

1) Prolific breeders (~ 33,000 eggs)

2) Tolerance for temperature / salinity
3) All stages of life poisonous (bufotoxin)
4) Generalist diet (including cat food) No native toad species

• Trap / hand catch frogs 1935

• Biocontrol (virus) ~ 100 Marine toad
released…
 Amphibians
Ascaphidae (example = Ascaphus truei):
Anatomy:
• Males have tail-like intromittent organ
• Highly vascularized cloacal extension
• Tympana absent; do not call
Aquatic:
Habitat:
Northwest United States
• Swift mountain streams with cobbled substrate
• Primarily aquatic; terrestrial after heavy rains
Reproduction:
• Internal fertilization (only frog species…)
• Inguinal amplexus; ♂ “tail inserted into ♀ cloaca
• Small clutches of large eggs (place under rocks)
• Tadpoles have suction disks / reduced fins
Growth / Maturation:
• Metamorphosis ~ 2 – 3 years
• Sexual Maturation ~ 8 – 9 years
• Life Span ~ 12 – 20 years
 Amphibians
Pelobatidae (example = Scaphiopus intermontana):
Anatomy:
• Keratinous, spade-like metatarsal tubercle
• Rotund body; short legs; large eyes
• Glandular, tuberculate skin
Terrestrial:
Habitat:
North America / Europe / Asia / Africa
• Found in sagebrush country (shallow burrows)
• Over-winter in self-made burrows (~ 1 m deep)
• Survive osmotic stress via urea in body fluids
Reproduction:
• Explosive breeding; permanent / ephemeral waters
• 300 – 500 eggs / female; hatch = 2 – 4 days
Growth / Maturation:
• Metamorphosis ~ 1 month
• Sexual Maturation ~ 1 – 2 years
• Life Span ~ 10 – 13 years
 Amphibians
Bufonidae (example = Bufo boreas):
Anatomy:
• Bidder’s Organ: Rudimentary ovary (on male testis)
• Rotund body; dull coloration
• Prominent skin glands (toxic - peptides)
Terrestrial:
Habitat:
Cosmopolitan
• Various elevations; Close water contact
• Over-winter in existing burrows near / in water
Reproduction:
• Prolonged breeders; ♂♂ actively search out ♀♀
• Males lack call; “chirp” = release call
• ~ 6000 eggs / clutch; laid in double row strings
Growth / Maturation:
• Metamorphosis ~ 1 – 2 months
• Sexual Maturation ~ 4 – 6 years
• Life Span ~ 10 – 15 years
 Amphibians Indicator
Species
Hylidae (example = Hyla regilla):
Anatomy:
• Relatively small: 1 – 2 inches in length
• Toe discs present
• Polymorphic colors; change with temp / humidity
Primarily Arboreal:
Habitat:
North / Central / South America
• Low shrubbery during wet season
• Over-winter in moist, cool retreats during winter
Reproduction:
• Migration to breeding ponds triggered by warm, winter rains
• ♂♂ enter pond, begin calling (attract ♀♀; warn ♂♂)
• ~ 500 - 750 eggs / clutch; ~ 3 clutches / season
Growth / Maturation:
• Metamorphosis ~ 2 months
• Sexual Maturation ~ 1 – 2 years
• Life Span ~ ???
 Amphibians Red located on lower
abdomen / hind limbs
Ranidae (example = Rana Aurora ):
Anatomy:
• Mid-sized body: 2 - 3 inches in length
• Long rear legs; exceptional leaping ability
• Presence of vocal sacs dependent on sub-species
Terrestrial:
Habitat:
Cosmopolitan
• Require riparian vegetation near ponds / streams
• Move into upland forest outside of breeding season
Reproduction:
• Reproduction occurs November – April (assures cold water)
• Extensive migrations to breeding sites not uncommon
• ~ 200 - 1000 eggs / clutch; attached to aquatic vegetation
Growth / Maturation:
• Metamorphosis ~ 3 – 4 months
• Sexual Maturation ~ 2 – 3 years
• Life Span ~ 10 years Believed to be inspiration for Twain’s
"The Notorious Jumping Frog
of Calveras Country"
 Amphibians
Amphibian Decline:
• Nearly 1/3 of amphibian species
are threatened (~ 2000 species)
• ~ 150 species believed extinct over
the past several years
• 43% of all species declining in
population (< 1% show increases)
• Regions:
• Latin America (largest #) Global Distribution of Amphibians
• Caribbean (largest %)
• Madagascar
• Eastern Australia
• Central / Southern China
• West Africa

Why are populations

declining?
(7 major hypotheses…) Global Distribution of Threatened Amphibians
 Amphibians Habitat Fragmentation:
Amphibian Decline - Reasons: Populations isolated due to
California red- removal of linking habitat
1) Habitat Changes: legged frog

Habitat Destruction: Habitat Alteration:

Complete elimination of ecosystem Changes to ecosystem that
leading to total loss of biological function adversely affect function
 Amphibians Habitat Fragmentation:
Amphibian Decline - Reasons: Populations isolated due to
California red- removal of linking habitat
1) Habitat Changes: legged frog

Habitat Destruction: Habitat Alteration:

Complete elimination of ecosystem Changes to ecosystem that
leading to total loss of biological function adversely affect function

2) Introduced Species:

Sunfish vs. Red-legged Frog / Pacific Tree Frog Bullfrog vs. Anything that moves
 Amphibians
Amphibian Decline - Reasons:
3) Overexploitation:
• Education (e.g., dissection)
• Research
• Bait
Red-legged Frog: Illicit Pet Trade
Prized for legs
(Goliath Frog ~ $3000)
(~ 80,000 harvested / year)

4) Climate Change:

Wood Frog – New York Great-crested Newt

Breeding earlier than usual… Drought
 Amphibians
Amphibian Decline - Reasons:
5) UV Radiation: 6) Chemical Contamination:
Atrazine (herbicide):
Disrupts steroidogenesis resulting in
demasculanization and hermaphroditism
Acidification:
Reduced hatching success
Nitrogen Pollution:
Pacific Tree Frog: Reduced feeding activity, swim less vigorously,
Developmental and physiological Display disequilibrium, development malformations
abnormalities and reduces larval
survival
7) Disease:

Common Frog Yellow-legged Frog Western Toad Pacific Tree Frog

Virus Bacteria Water Mold Trematodes
 Amphibians
Amphibian Decline - Reasons:
5) UV Radiation: 6) Chemical Contamination:
Atrazine (herbicide):
Disrupts steroidogenesis resulting in
demasculanization and hermaphroditism
Acidification:
Reduced hatching success
Nitrogen Pollution:
Pacific Tree Frog: Reduced feeding activity, swim less vigorously,
Developmental and physiological Display disequilibrium, development malformations
abnormalities and reduces larval
survival
Synergisms most likely at work…
7) Disease:

Common Frog Yellow-legged Frog Western Toad Pacific Tree Frog

Virus Bacteria Water Mold Trematodes