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The angle at which the light enters is called the angle of incidence. The angle of incidence can
be defined as the angle between the oncoming ray of light and the normal vector of the
surface of the material it is coming into contact with. The normal vector is a perpendicular
vector from a plain or surface of an object.
• The method and the instrumentation used for electronic density
measurements is based on the principle that when an electromagnetic
wave penetrates vertically in the ionospheric plasma the reflection
occurs at the level where the refractive index becomes zero.
• in optics, the refractive index or index of refraction of a material is a
dimensionless number that describes how fast light through the
material. It is defined as n = c/v
where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the phase velocity of
light in the medium. For example, the refractive index of water is 1.333,
meaning that light travels 1.333 times as fast in vacuum as in water.
The D region attenuates signals because the radio signals cause the free electrons in the region to vibrate. As they vibrate the
electrons collide with molecules, and at each collision there is a small loss of energy. With countless millions of electrons
vibrating, the amount of energy loss becomes noticeable and manifests itself as a reduction in the overall signal level. The
amount of signal loss is dependent upon a number of factors: One is the number of gas molecules that are present. The greater
the number of gas molecules, the higher the number of collisions and hence the higher the attenuation.
D ….The level of ionisation is also very important. The higher the level of ionisation, the greater the number of
electrons that vibrate and collide with molecules. The third main factor is the frequency of the signal. As the
frequency increases, the wavelength of the vibration shortens, and the number of collisions between the free
electrons and gas molecules decreases. As a result signals lower in the radio frequency spectrum are attenuated far
more than those which are higher in frequency. Even so high frequency signals still suffer some reduction in signal
strength.

when power is increased voltage is increased the wavelet becomes larger ..but it vibrates in same frequency only..same
frequency with different power travel different distance..as power is related to volt or amplitude of the wave..so wavelet
becomes larger ...high data rate using mw frequency ..at the same time with high power