WHY STUDIES

In recent years, the industrial and commercial systems have

advanced &

Their capacities have grown close to or sometimes exceeding that of

small electric utility (EB = Electricity Board) system.

More loads, more generators, and more redundancy means more

buses/branches and, to predict the performance of the electrical
system for all the possible configurations, more studies.

The efforts required to evaluate the performance of the systems

increases with their size and complexity.
 WHY STUDIES

Today’s business environment has become intensely competitive,

Management personnel have to be very aware of the total owning

cost of their electrical power distribution system

Therefore they demand assurances of maximum return on all capital

investments in the electrical power systems.
 WHY STUDIES

The results of each of the various electrical studies serve specific

purposes in the planning, design, and operation of electrical power
systems.

Relays and circuit breakers are tested and calibrated according to the
coordination study.

Spectrum analyzers measure the harmonics present in the power

system.

Power flows, voltage drops, continuous and starting currents can be

measured and compared to the load flow and motor starting
calculations, though for many configurations this will never actually be
done.
 WHY STUDIES

The transient performance of the system can be measured for many

operating configurations to verify the calculation models, but again
these tests seldom are done in a manner that should be carried out
considering their importance.

Short circuit tests are destructive, thus are not conducted in the field (at
least, not on purpose).

The fact that results of some the calculations will never be tested
conclusively is reason good enough for conducting studies and for the
calculations to be performed as accurately as possible.
 WHY STUDIES

Objectives of electrical system studies are:-

To evaluate performance of system
To determine effectiveness of alternatives
To select cost effective solution
To select adequate equipment ratings.

For large and complex processes and plants, the type of technical
analysis required to meet design aspects and criteria may become
quite involved.
 WHY STUDIES

In the past electrical system analysis were performed by long hand

calculations.

Many simplifying assumptions were made to meet constraints of time

and manpower.

This limited the number of options considered and results were not
adequate.

Systems were built, equipment installed subsequent to which

modifications were made as required resulting in expensive solutions.
 WHY STUDIES

Power system softwares gave engineers a quick method of simulating

case studies. Introduction of digital time sharing main frame computers
made it easy to evaluate many options quickly.

This resulted in cost of studies to be less expensive with better

confidence in the results. Identification of least cost solution became
easy.

Recent advances in PC technology, in terms of speed and capacity,

has made computing power accessible to every person at a very
affordable cost.

It is important for plant engineers to be knowledgeable in the types of

power system studies that are performed.
 WHY STUDIES

The use of digital computers with sophisticated electrical system

softwares

- like ETAP, CYME, SKM Power Tools, EDSA, ERACS

makes it possible to study the performance of proposed and actual

systems under many operating conditions.

Answers to many questions regarding

-impact of system expansion,
-short circuit capacity,
-stability, load distribution etc,

can be intelligently and economically obtained.

 WHY STUDIES

The planning, design and operation of various industries require

several studies to assist in evaluation of

-the initial and future system performance

-system reliability, safety

-ability to grow with the production and/or operating requirements.

 WHY STUDIES

The studies most likely to be needed are

-load flow studies

-short circuit of fault studies,

-relay coordination studies,

-harmonic studies,

- transient stability

- motor start studies.

 WHY STUDIES

The Lead engineer or Specialist Engineer must decide which

studies are needed to ensure that the system will operate
safely, economically and efficiently over the expected life of the
system.
 WHY STUDIES

1.0 Preparation for the study

To solve a power system analysis problem, the engineer must be

thoroughly familiar with the fundamentals of electrical power
engineering.

The engineer can then analyse the problem, prepare necessary

equivalent circuits and obtain appropriate data before using a power
system software to perform repetitive calculations
 WHY STUDIES

Failure to use valid analytical procedure to establish a sound basic

approach to the problem could lead to disastrous consequences in
both the design and operation of a system.

A basic understanding of power engineering is essential to correctly

interpret the results of the power system software calculation results.

Thorough base of experience in electrical power system engineering

in addition to modern, effective computing tools and software is
must.
 WHY STUDIES

Electrical power system analysis engineering softwares (such as

ETAP, CYME, SKM Power Tools, EDSA or ERACS) are excellent for
studying power systems

However softwares cannot be used as a substitute for knowledge

and experience.

So some basic fundamentals of power system engineering has to be

attained or brushed before an engineer can use the software.
 WHY STUDIES

To set up the electrical system MODEL SLD in the software for

system analysis, certain basic data must be gathered with accuracy
and proper presentation.

Important inputs to a meaningful system study are

-The extent of system representation,

-restriction in terms of nodes or buses and branches ( such as
cables, lines and transformers),
-balanced three phase network
-single line diagram (SLD), impedance diagram,
-load list at various busbars, spilt of loads as motor or lighting,
-identification of harmonic generating loads, etc
 WHY STUDIES

2.0 Load Flow Studies-

These calculate active and reactive power flows from the source
and through each of the branches along with and voltages at all
the bus and nodes.

Applications include:
– Identifying excessive voltage variations/violations under
normal and contingency outage conditions.
– Identifying overloaded circuits and necessary plant upgrades
under normal and contingency outage conditions.
– Identifying under load circuits for carrying out system
optimisation
 WHY STUDIES
– Checking current flows under different conditions.

– Estimating overall active and reactive power losses including

assessment of these losses in individual branches.

– Estimating the range of ON LOAD AUTO TAP changers or

OFF Load Tap changers required to ensure system voltages
are maintained at all points to well within desired limits under
both peak and minimum load conditions

– Specifying cables, reactors and transformers.

– Specifying compensation equipment such as power factor

correction capacitors or reactive absorbing devices such as
reactors
 WHY STUDIES

Load flow study result acceptance criteria needs to developed and

agreed with the CLIENT for comparison of results with criteria as
required to analyse the power system load flow software results.
 WHY STUDIES
3.0 Fault Level Studies-

Accurate fault level assessments support the legally required safety

rating of equipment to reduce dangers.

Study includes comparison of evaluated fault levels like

-initial AC symmetrical rms fault current,

-peak making fault current
-Asymmetrical break rms fault current values

at any given bus in the system with corresponding switchgear and

breaker peak and break fault ratings.
 WHY STUDIES
Each of the above fault levels of the switchgear/CB should be
greater than the calculated values of each of these currents. That
is:-

• Peak fault rating in kA peak of a switchgear/CB should be greater

than the calculated Peak fault (kA peak) current at that
switchgear point of the system.

• Initial AC symmetrical kA rms fault rating of switchgear/CB

should be greater than the calculated Initial AC symmetrical kA
rms fault current at that switchgear point of the system.

• Asymmetrical break kA rms fault rating of switchgear/CB at

breaker opening time (3 cycle to 4 cycle i.e 60 to 80 milli-sec should
be greater than the calculated Asymmetrical break kA rms fault
current at that switchgear point of the system.
 WHY STUDIES

Studies Helps To :

• Identify equipment where ratings are exceeded.

• Specify ratings for plant upgrades and new plant.

• Contain or reduce fault levels on existing systems.

• Develop plant and operating procedures to limit fault current.

 WHY STUDIES
4.0 Stability Studies-

System disturbances are a source of instability

They can cause loss of synchronisation, stalling or overloading of

generators and motors.

Catastrophic failure of large parts of the power system can result,

along with plant damage.
 WHY STUDIES
Stability models & Studies are used to:

– Assess system susceptibility to transient events such as faults,

motor starting or sudden load application and load rejection.

– Specify technical requirements for stable operation.

– Design or verify suitable protection schemes.

 WHY STUDIES
5.0 Electrical protection-

CAD methods to co-ordinate protection on a wide variety of

electrical systems so that faulty equipment is disconnected promptly
leaving functioning equipment in service wherever possible.
 WHY STUDIES
6.0 Electromagnetic transients & insulation co-ordination
studies-

Electromagnetic transients can damage plant and cause mal-

operation of equipment.

These studies include:

– Calculating system overvoltages resulting from faults or

switching operations.

– Calculating overvoltages caused by lightning strikes.

 WHY STUDIES
– Calculating switchgear TRV (Transient Recovery Voltage) and
RRRV (Rate of Rise of Recovery Voltage) to specify or check
switchgear ratings.

– Specifying or checking surge arrestor ratings.

– Analysing faults and recommending solutions.

– Investigating linear and non-linear resonance