Using Statistical Techniq

ues
In Analyzing Data
 The Scatter Diagram
• Plotting graphically the value
s of the correlated variables
means placing one variable o
n the x-axis and the other y-a
xis .The scatter diagram gives
you a picture of the relations
hip between variables
 In figure 1, the points are plotted to show the relatio
nship between the values listed under column A whic
h are plotted on the x-axis and the values listed unde
r column B which are plotted on the y-axis. Observe f
rom this data that for every increase of 5 units on the
items in column A, There is corresponding increase o
f 3 units on the items listed on B. You will also observ
e that the points fall along a straight line running fro
m the lower left to the upper right of the scatter diag
ram. This illustrates a perfect positive relationship. W
hen computed, the coefficient of correlation is equal
to 1.
Figure 2 is the opposite of figure 1 . You will
notice that for every increase of 5 units in A
, there is a corresponding increase of 3 unit
s on B , the points also fall along a straight li
ne but this time it runs from the upper left
hand part to the lower right of the scatter d
iagram. This is an example of a perfect nega
tive relationship. When computed the coeff
icient of correlation is equal to -1.
 Figure 3.
There are some situations in life wherein t
he relationship is not perfect. Figure 3, ab
ove is a graphical presentation of a scatter
diagram wherein the points are not falling
along a straight line but the line is still app
arent. This figure illustrates a very high pos
itive correlation between the two sets of p
oints
 Figure 4
The scatter diagram in Figure 4 show
s the points scattered in all direction
s. This is an illustration of a low nega
tive relationship.
When the points are evenly distribut
ed all over the scatter diagram, that
will indicate that there is no relations
hip.
Types of Correlation
The types of correlation are summarized below:
1. Simple correlation
•This is a relationship between two variables. The relationship between an
independent variable and a dependent variable is usually measured.
A. Linear Correlation
•This means that a change in one variable is at a constant rate with respect
to the change in the second variable. The correlation between the variables
, may either be showing direct or inverse relationship.
1. Direct – For every increase in one variable, there is a corresponding
increase in the second variable
2. Inverse – For every increase in one variable, there is a correspondin
g decrease in the second variable
B. Curvilinear Correlation
•This means that a change in one variable is not at a fixed rate. It may be in
creasing or decreasing with respect to the change in the other variable
2. Multiple Correlation
•Multiple correlations involve more than two variable
s. The relationship between a dependent variable and
two or more independent variable is usually measure
s.
A. Non-linear Correlation
•The relationship in non-linear correlation is similar t
o curvilinear correlation. However, in this correlation
more than two variable are involved.
B. Joint Correlation
•This correlation between the dependent variable an
d two or more variables is changed with the addition
of another independent variable
3. Partial Correlation
•This is a relative measure of relations
hip between the dependent variable a
nd a particular independent variable, w
ithout considering the effect of the oth
er independent variables under study.
The Coefficient of Correlation
•to obtain the quantitative value of the ext
ent of the relationship between two sets of it
ems. It is necessary to calculate the correlatio
n coefficient. The values of the coefficient of c
orrelation ranges between +1 to -1. Zero repr
esents no relationship. Correlation coefficient
between 1 and -1 represents various degrees
of relationship between two variables.
1. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Co
efficient(Pearson r)
•The Pearson Product -Moment Correlation Coeffi
cient is commonly called the Pearson r. This meas
ure was first derived by a British statistician name
d Karl Pearson . It measure the linear relationship
between two variables. Therefore, to be able to d
etermine linearity, it is important that a scatter di
agram be constructed prior to the computation of
the Pearson r.
Example 1
The scores of ten randomly selected
senior high school students on the m
athematical portion of the National A
dmission test (NAT) and mathematic
al ability part of a university admissio
n test were recorded as follows:
The score on the mathematical portion of the NAT
are listed under the column marked x while the sco
res on the mathematical ability part of a university
admission test are listed under the column marked
y. In the column marked x² are the squares of each
of x scores and in the column mark y² are the squar
es of each x times y. All the columns are summed
up and the values may now be entered in the given
formula:
Solution:
The sign of the coefficient of correlation indicates the direction of the
relationship between the two variables. A positive correlation coeffici
ent means that individuals obtaining high scores in the first variable te
nd to obtain low score in a second variable.
A negative correlation coefficient means that for every increase in
one variable there is a corresponding decrease on a second variable.
Or decrease in one variable brings about an increase on the second va
riable
The absolute value of the correlation coefficient indicates the exte
nt of the relationship. An r of 0.7 and above indicates a very high corre
lation; an r around 0.5 may be interpreted as substantial; and an r 0.3
and below indicates a low relationship between two variables being m
easured.
A 0.88 degree of correlation for the above mentioned data denote
s very high correlation.
The value of the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (
Pearson r) can be interpreted as follows as suggested by Garret (1969
).
r from .00 to ± .20 denotes indifferen
t, inverse or negligible relationship
r from ± .21 to ± .40 denotes low bu
t slight relationship
r from ± .41 to ± .70 denotes substa
ntial or marked relationship
r from ± .71 to ± 1.00 denotes high
to very high relationship
 A. Computation of Pearson r
Pearson r can be computed based on raw scores
The formula used is:

Where: r = coefficient of correlati

on
n =number of samples
x=first set of variables
y= second set of variables
2. The Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coeff
icient (Spearman Rho)
•The statistics being used based on ranks or positi
on is the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient r
epresented here by r. It is a measure of relationsh
ip between two variables by ranking the items or i
ndividuals under study according to their position
it represents the extent to which the same individ
uals or events occupy the same relative position o
n two variables
Where:
r = Spearman rank correlation co
efficient
D= difference between the two
ranks of an individual in the variable st
udied
n=number of individuals.
The formula requires that you ge
t the differences in the ranks of t
he individuals from the two varia
bles, then you square and add t
he differences and substitute th
e resulting values in the above fo
rmula.
Example
•The scores obtained by fifteen (15) rand
omly selected senior high school graduat
ing batch of junior high school students
who took an admission test administered
in English were recorded. The same stud
ents who took an admission test adminis
tered in English were recorded. The sam
e student took a similar test with a versio
n in Filipino.
Determine the correlation c
oefficient between the two
sets of scores obtained by t
he student using the spear
man rank coefficient formul
a.
Interpretation:
There is high correlation be
tween the two sets of score
s obtained by students in b
oth test.
One-Sample z-test
It is used when we want to know whether t
he difference between a sample mean and
a population mean is large enough to be sta
tistically significant, that is, if it is unlikely t
o have occurred by chance. This test can be
used only if the background assumptions ar
e satisfied such as the population mean and
standard deviation must be known and the
test statistic should follow the normal distri
bution.
One-sample t-test
It used when we have a random sample
and we want to test if it is significantly d
ifferent from a population mean or we c
ompared a single sample mean(X) to a k
nown hypothesized population mean(m
). Thus test can be used only if the backg
round assumptions are satisfied such as
sample observations should be random
and the population standard deviation is
known.