Ronnee Yashon
Michael Cummings
Chapter 9
Forensics
Central Points
DNA testing can determine identity
DNA profiles are constructed in specialized
laboratories
DNA profiles used in courts
Ancestry can be determined by testing DNA
Can refuse to give sample to the police
Case A: DNA Frightens Victim
Margaret was attacked and beaten
ID William in a line up by his “eyes”
Williamclaimed innocence but was convicted
and sentenced to 25 years
New DNA testing using PCR could be used
9.1 How Is DNA Tested?
Dr. Alec Jeffreys
In 1975, developed DNA fingerprinting to
compare DNA profiles from different individuals
Used in criminal investigations
9.2 DNA Profile (DNA Fingerprint)
Variations in:
Minisatellites - are repeated sequences of 10-100 base pairs that are used
for developing DNA profiles
Short tandem repeats (STRs) - are repeating sequences
of 2-6 base pairs of DNA.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) -
is a DNA sequence variation occurring when a single nucleotide — A, T, C or G — in the
genome (or other shared sequence) differs between members of a biological species
Variations for DNA profile and ID individuals
The use of scientific knowledge in civil and
criminal law is called forensics
Used in criminal cases
STR for DNA Profile
Steps:
1. DNA sample analyzed for STR alleles
present in population members
2. Analyze population frequency, how
often combinations of alleles present
3. Population frequencies for each STR
allele multiplied to estimate probability
Population Frequency Calculators
Table 9.1 illustrates how to calculate population
frequency as described in the previous slide.
How are DNA Profiles Constructed?
Two common methods:
Restriction fragment length
polymorphism (RFLP) analysis
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
RFLP Makes it Possible to ID
Individuals
The picture on the left
illustrates RFLP
analysis.
RFLP Analysis
The figure to
the left
illustrates
RFLP
analysis… it
is defined
further in the
next slide…
Figure 9.3: RFLP Analysis.
DNA is extracted from samples and cut into fragments with a
restriction enzyme. The fragments from each sample are placed
in different lanes on a gel and separated by size using an
electric current. The various fragment sizes reflect differences in
the number of copies of a DNA repeat.
1.DNA is extracted from cells belonging to three different people.
2. Each DNA sample is cut with a specific restriction enzyme.
3.The DNA is loaded into wells in the gel.
4.The gel is immersed in a liquid, and an electric current is applied
across the gel from top to bottom.
5.DNA fragments move through the gel and separate by size.
Smaller fragments migrate furthest to the end of the gel. The
results are a pattern of bands.
6.The DNA bands are visualized on film and analyzed.
Fig 9-3, p. 186
PCR
Small amount of DNA sample
Steps in one cycle:
1. DNA placed in solution
2. Heated, double-stranded DNA separates
3. Temperature lowered, primers mixed with
DNA
4. Primers pair with complementary regions
on DNA
5. DNA polymerase uses nucleotides to
synthesize double-stranded DNA molecule
The PCR Method
The figure to the left illustrates the
PCR method… it is described in
detail in the next slide…
Figure 9.5: The PCR Method.
This shows one round of DNA duplication. Most PCR reactions
involve several hundred rounds.
1.DNA is recovered for PCR and processed before being copied.
2. DNA is heated and separated into single strands.
3.Primers are added and bind with complementary regions in the
DNA.
4.Primers serve as starting points for synthesis of new DNA
strands.
5.New double stranded DNA is formed.
6.The amount of target DNA doubles with each PCR cycle.
7.The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) uses DNA polymerase to
amplify a particular stretch of DNA.
8.In PCR, primers are are short nucleotide sequences
Fig. 9-5, p. 186
PCR Can Create Millions of Copies
of DNA
Figure 9.2 PCR can
create one million copies
of DNA after 20 cycles
and one billion copies
after 30 cycles.
1 Original sample
2 One cycle
3 Two cycles
Figure 9.6: Multiple PCR
cycles can create millions of 4 Three cycles
copies of DNA in a short time.
Fig. 9-6, p. 187
Sources of DNA Evidence
At the scene of a crime,
DNA evidence can be
collected from several
sources including:
• Blood
• Hair
• Saliva
•mature red blood cells
cannot be used as a
source for DNA analysis
DNA Microarrays
First developed for laboratories for quick
analysis of DNA samples
Now portable allows analysis at the scene
Handheld PCR and other devices will
revolutionize crime scene forensic and
medical treatments
Case A Questions
Should William get a new trial?
What are the benefits and challenges of
using DNA profiles?
How reliable is DNA evidence?
See the textbook for further questions
about this case
9.3 DNA Profiling and U.S. Courts
Landmark case: Frye v. U.S.
DNA entered U.S. court system in 1989
Approved for use in courts all over the
country
Evidence can be challenged
How Are DNA Profiles Used in
Court?
Material from crime scene analyzed,
compared to other samples or data base
Combined DNA Index System
(CODIS) panel of 13 STRs for DNA
profiles
~30% of DNA profile results clear
innocent people
DNA Profiles From a Crime Scene
The figure on the left shows
the DNA profile from the blood
stain found at a crime scene as
well as that of seven suspects.
Which suspect was present at
the scene of the crime?
DNA Databases
Since 1998, FBI enters DNA profile
from felons
More than 1,700,000 profiles
DNA databases becoming important
tools in solving crimes
8.4 What Are Other Uses for DNA
Profiles?
Biohistorians used DNA to ID bodies
individuals
Czar Nicholas II and family
Remains of military personnel killed in action
Victims of 9/11 and Katrina
Paternity identification
Trace our ancestry
DNA to ID Individuals
The figure above illustrates how
DNA markers can be used to ID
individuals.
Tracing Ancestry
Mitochondrial DNA testing
Maternal inheritance
Use haplotypes to trace maternal ancestry
Y chromosome testing
Y chromosome passed father to son
Use haplotypes to trace paternal inheritance
Genographic Project sponsored by
National Geographic Society
Inheritance of Mitochondrial DNA
The pedigree chart above illustrates mitochondrial inheritance. All
the children of the affected mother will also be affected.
Inheritance of the Y Chromosome
The pedigree chart above illustrates Y chromosome
inheritance. All the sons of the affected father will also be
affected.
Case B: Samples Asked of All
Two women murdered in a small community
Males > age 17 to provide sample for DNA
dragnet
Murderer was identified
What are the important issues in this
request?
See the textbook for further questions in this
case
Legal and Ethical Issues and
Forensics?
Innocence Project
www.innocenceproject.org
Databases have been constructed for
use in solving crimes
Using DNA profile for arrest warrants
Innocent
On the upper right is a picture of Kirk Bloodsworth. His was
the first capital conviction in the US overturned in 1993 as a
result of DNA testing.
Ethical and Legal Questions
Table 9.3 asks various ethical and legal questions such as:
• Who must give DNA in a DNA database?
• If asked to give a sample in a DNA dragnet, can you refuse?
• Can old evidence be investigated and tested years after the
crime has been committed?
Spotlight on Law: Narborough Village
In 1989, first case with DNA profile for evidence
Rape and murder of 2 girls in a English village
DNA analysis, one man killed both but not
Buckland
DNA dragnet of > 4,000 men, no match
Colin Pitchfork did not provide his own sample;
caught because of overheard conversation
Spotlight on Law: Narborough Village
(2)
Could they have solved this murder
without DNA analysis?
DNA dragnets not used much in U.S.
Why?
See the textbook for further questions on
this case
Important facts
Analysis of mtDNA or Y chromosomes provides data that
allows people to trace their ancestry.
DNA profiles have been developed from the remains of dead
people.
Two common techniques used in DNA forensics are
restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and the
polymerase chain reaction.
DNA profiles can be prepared from very small DNA samples.
DNA profile analysis has led to the release of individuals who
were wrongly convicted of crimes.
DNA is stable and remains intact for years.
