10

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
AND POLAR COORDINATES
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS & POLAR COORDINATES

10.5
Conic Sections

In this section, we will learn:

How to derive standard equations
for conic sections.
CONIC SECTIONS

Here, we give geometric definitions

and then derive the standard equations of:

 Parabolas

 Ellipses

 Hyperbolas
CONIC SECTIONS

They are called conic sections, or conics,

because they result from intersecting a cone
with a plane.
PARABOLA

A parabola is the set of points in a plane

that are equidistant from a fixed point F
(the focus) and a fixed line (the directrix).
VERTEX

The point halfway between the focus

and the directrix lies on the parabola.

 It is called
the vertex.
AXIS

The line through the focus perpendicular to

the directrix is called the axis of the parabola.
PARABOLAS

In the 16th century, Galileo showed that

the path of a projectile that is shot into the air
at an angle to the ground is a parabola.

 Since then, parabolic shapes have been used

in designing automobile headlights, reflecting
telescopes, and suspension bridges.

 See Problem 18 for the reflection property

of parabolas that makes them so useful.
PARABOLAS

We obtain a particularly simple equation for a

parabola if we place its vertex at the origin O
and its directrix parallel to the x-axis.
PARABOLAS

If the focus is the point (0, p), then

the directrix has the equation y = –p.

 The figure
illustrates
the case
where p > 0.
PARABOLAS

If P(x, y) is any point on the parabola,

then
 The distance from P to the focus is: PF  x 2  ( y  p) 2

 The distance
from P to
the directrix is:
|y + p|
PARABOLAS

The defining property of a parabola is

that these distances are equal:

x  ( y  p)  y  p
2 2
PARABOLAS

We get an equivalent equation by squaring

and simplifying:

x  ( y  p)  y  p  ( y  p)
2 2 2 2

x  y  2 py  p  y  2 py  p
2 2 2 2 2

x  4 py
2
PARABOLAS Equation 1

An equation of the parabola with

focus (0, p) and directrix y = –p
is:
x2 = 4py
PARABOLAS

If we write a = 1/(4p), the standard equation

of a parabola (Equation 1) becomes y = ax2.

 It opens upward if p > 0 and downward if p < 0.

PARABOLAS

The graph is symmetric with respect to

the y-axis because Equation 1 is unchanged
when x is replaced by –x.
PARABOLAS Equation 2

If we interchange x and y in Equation 1,

we obtain:
y2 = 4px
PARABOLAS Equation 2

This is an equation of the parabola with

focus (p, 0) and directrix x = –p.

 Interchanging x and y amounts to reflecting about

the diagonal line y = x.
PARABOLAS

The parabola opens to the right if p > 0

and to the left if p < 0.

 In both cases, the graph is symmetric with respect

to the x-axis—the axis of the parabola.
PARABOLAS Example 1

Find the focus and directrix of the parabola

y2 + 10x = 0 and sketch the graph.

 If we write the equation as y2 = –10x and compare it

with Equation 2, we see that 4p = –10.

 So, p = –(5/2).
PARABOLAS Example 1

Thus, the focus is (p, 0) = ((–5/2), 0)

and the directrix is x = (5/2).
ELLIPSE

An ellipse is the set of points in a plane

the sum of whose distances from two fixed
points F1 and F2 is a constant.

 These two fixed points are called the foci.

ELLIPSES

One of Kepler’s laws is that the orbits

of the planets in the solar system are
ellipses with the sun at one focus.
ELLIPSES

To obtain the simplest equation for an ellipse,

we place the foci on the x-axis at the points
(–c, 0) and (c, 0) so that the origin is halfway
between the foci.
ELLIPSES

Let the sum of the distances from a point

on the ellipse to the foci be 2a > 0.

Then, P(x, y) is a point on the ellipse

when:
|PF1| + |PF2| = 2a
ELLIPSES

That is,

( x  c )  y  ( x  c )  y  2a
2 2 2 2

or

( x  c )  y  2a  ( x  c )  y
2 2 2 2
ELLIPSES

Squaring both sides, we have:

x  2cx  c  y  4a  4a ( x  c)  y
2 2 2 2 2 2

 x  2cx  c  y
2 2 2

This simplifies to:

a ( x  c)  y  a  cx
2 2 2
ELLIPSES

We square again:

a ( x  2cx  c  y )  a  2a cx  c x
2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2

This becomes:

(a  c ) x  a y  a (a  c )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ELLIPSES

From triangle F1F2P, we see that:

2c < 2a
ELLIPSES

Thus, c < a and, therefore,

a2 – c2 > 0.

 For convenience, let b2 = a2 – c2.

ELLIPSES Equation 3

Then, the equation of the ellipse becomes:

b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2

If both sides are divided by a2b2, it is:

2 2
x y
2
 2 1
a b

 Since b2 = a2 – c2 < a2, it follows that b < a.

ELLIPSES

The x-intercepts are found by setting

y = 0.

 Then, x2/a2 = 1, or x2 = a2.

 So, x = ±a.
VERTICES

The corresponding points (a, 0) and (–a, 0)

are called the vertices of the ellipse.
MAJOR AXIS

The line segment joining the vertices

is called the major axis.
ELLIPSES

To find the y-intercepts, we set x = 0,

and obtain y2 = b2.

 Hence, y = ± b.
ELLIPSES

Equation 3 remains the same if x is

replaced by –x or y is replaced by –y.

 So, the ellipse is symmetric about both axes.

ELLIPSES

Notice that, if the foci coincide,

then c = 0.

 So, a = b, and the ellipse becomes a circle

with radius r = a = b.
ELLIPSES

We summarize this discussion

as follows.
ELLIPSES Equation 4

The ellipse x 2
y 2

2
 2 1 ab0
a b
has foci (±c, 0), where c2 = a2 – b2, and
vertices (±a, 0).
ELLIPSES

If the foci of an ellipse are located

on the y-axis at (0, ±c), we can find its
equation by interchanging x and y in
Equation 4.
ELLIPSES Notation 5

The ellipse x 2 y2
2
 2 1 ab0
b a
has foci (0, ±c),
where c2 = a2 – b2,
and vertices (0, ±a).
ELLIPSES Example 2

Sketch the graph of

9x2 + 16y2 = 144
and locate the foci.
ELLIPSES Example 2

Divide both sides of the equation

by 144:
2 
x y
 1
16 9

 The equation is now in the standard form

for an ellipse.
ELLIPSES Example 2

So, we have:
a2 = 16, b2 = 9, a = 4, b = 3

 The x-intercepts are ±4.

 The y-intercepts are ±3.

ELLIPSES Example 2

Also, c2 = a2 – b2 = 7.

So, c = 7 and the foci are (± 7 , 0).

ELLIPSES Example 2

The graph is sketched here.

ELLIPSES Example 3

Find an equation of the ellipse with foci

(0, ±2) and vertices (0, ±3).

 Using the notation of Equation 5,

we have:
c = 2, a = 3

 Then, we obtain:
b2 = a2 – c2 = 9 – 4 = 5
ELLIPSES Example 3

So, an equation of the ellipse

is: x2
y 
 1
5 9
 Another way of writing
the equation is:
9x2 + 5y2 = 45
ELLIPSES

Like parabolas, ellipses have

an interesting reflection property
that has practical consequences.
ELLIPSES

If a source of light or sound is placed

at one focus of a surface with elliptical
cross-sections, then all the light or sound is
reflected off the surface to the other focus.

 See Exercise 63.

LITHOTRIPSY

This principle is used in lithotripsy,

a treatment for kidney stones.

 A reflector with elliptical cross-section is placed

in such a way that the kidney stone is at one focus.

 High-intensity sound waves generated at the other

focus are reflected to the stone.
LITHOTRIPSY

 The waves destroy the stone without

damaging other tissue.

 Thus, the patient is spared the trauma of

surgery, and recovers within a few days.
HYPERBOLA

A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane

the difference of whose distances from two
fixed points F1 and F2 (the foci) is a constant.
HYPERBOLAS

Hyperbolas occur frequently as graphs

of equations in:

 Chemistry (Boyle’s Law)

 Physics (Ohm’s Law)

 Biology

 Economics (Supply and demand curves)

HYPERBOLAS

Hyperbolas were used in the navigation

systems developed in World Wars I and II.

 See Exercise 51.

HYPERBOLAS

Notice that the definition of a hyperbola

is similar to that of an ellipse.

 The only change is that the sum of distances

has become a difference of distances.
HYPERBOLAS

In fact, the derivation of the equation

of a hyperbola is also similar to the one
given earlier for an ellipse.
HYPERBOLAS Equation 6

It is left as Exercise 52 to show that, when

the foci are on the x-axis at (±c, 0) and the
difference of distances is |PF1| – |PF2| = ±2a,
then the equation of the hyperbola is:
2 2
x y
2
 2 1
a b
where c2 = a2 + b2.
HYPERBOLAS

Notice that:

 The x-intercepts are again ±a.

 The points (a, 0) and (–a, 0) are the vertices

of the hyperbola.
HYPERBOLAS

However, if we put x = 0 in Equation 6,

we get:
y2 = –b2

 This is impossible.

 So, there is no y-intercept.

 The hyperbola is symmetric with respect to both axes.

HYPERBOLAS

To analyze the hyperbola further, we look

at Equation 6 and obtain:
2 2
x y
2
 1  2
 1
a b
 This shows that x2 ≥ a2.

 So, |x| =√x2 ≥ a.

BRANCHES

Therefore, we have:
x ≥ a or x ≤ –a

 This means that the hyperbola consists

of two parts—called its branches.
ASYMPTOTES

When we draw a hyperbola, it is useful to

first draw its asymptotes—the dashed lines
y = (b/a)x and y = –(b/a)x.
ASYMPTOTES

Both branches of the hyperbola approach

the asymptotes.
 That is, they come arbitrarily close to the asymptotes.

 See Exercise 69
in Section 4.5,
where these
lines are shown
to be slant
asymptotes.
HYPERBOLAS Equation 7

The hyperbola 2 2
x y
2
 2 1
a b

has foci (±c, 0), where c2 = a2 + b2,

vertices (±a, 0), and asymptotes y = ±(b/a)x.
HYPERBOLAS

If the foci of a hyperbola are on the y-axis,

then, by reversing the roles of x and y,
we obtain the following information.
HYPERBOLAS Equation 8

The hyperbola
2 2
y x
2
 2 1
a b

has foci (0, ±c), where c2 = a2 + b2,

vertices (0, ±a), and asymptotes y = ±(a/b)x.
HYPERBOLAS

Equation 8 is illustrated here.

HYPERBOLAS Example 4

Find the foci and asymptotes of

the hyperbola
9x2 – 16y2 = 144
and sketch its graph.
HYPERBOLAS Example 4

If we divide both sides of the equation

by 144, it becomes: 2 2
y x
 1
16 9

 This is of the form given in Equation 7

with:
a = 4, b = 3
HYPERBOLAS Example 4

Since c2 = 16 + 9 = 25, the foci are (±5, 0).

The asymptotes are the lines y = ¾x and
y = – ¾x.
HYPERBOLAS Example 5

Find the foci and equation of the hyperbola

with vertices (0, ±1) and asymptote y = 2x.

 From Equation 8 and the given information,

we see that: a = 1 and a/b = 2

 Thus, b = a/2 = ½ and c2 = a2 + b2 = (5/4).

 The foci are (0, ±√5/2) and the equation of

the hyperbola is: y2 – 4x2 = 1
SHIFTED CONICS

As discussed in Appendix C, we shift

conics by taking the standard equations
(1), (2), (4), (5), (7), and (8) and replacing x
and y by x – h and y – k.
SHIFTED CONICS Example 6

Find an equation of the ellipse

with foci (2, –2), (4, –2), and vertices
(1, –2), (5, –2).
SHIFTED CONICS Example 6

The major axis is the line segment that joins

the vertices (1, –2), (5, –2), and has length 4;
so, a = 2.
The distance between the foci is 2; so, c = 1.

 Thus, b2 = a2 – c2 = 3.
SHIFTED CONICS Example 6

Since the center of the ellipse is (3, –2),

we replace x and y in Equation (4) by x – 3
and y + 2 to obtain:

( x  3) ( y  2)
2 2
 1
4 3
SHIFTED CONICS Example 7

Sketch the conic

9x2 – 4y2 – 72x + 8y + 176 = 0
and find its foci.
SHIFTED CONICS Example 7

We complete the squares as follows:

4( y  2 y )  9( x  8 x)  176
2 2

4( y  2 y  1)  9( x  8 x  16)  176  4  144

2 2

4( y  1)  9( x  4)  36
2 2

( y  1) ( x  4)
2 2
 1
9 4
SHIFTED CONICS Example 7

This is in the form of Equation 8—except that

x and y are replaced by x – 4 and y – 1.

 Thus, a2 = 9, b2 = 4, and c2 = 13.

SHIFTED CONICS Example 7

The hyperbola is shifted

four units to the right
and one unit upward.
SHIFTED CONICS Example 7

The foci are (4, 1 + √13)

and (4, 1 – √13) and
the vertices are (4, 4)
and (4, –2) .

The asymptotes are

y – 1 = ±3/2(x – 4).