EARTHQUAKES

WAVEFORM MODELING
Prosedur Pembuatan Peta Gempa

1. Identifikasi Sumber Gempa

3. Analisis Probabilitas
menentukan a(max) bedrock
untuk 500 Tahun

2. Pemilihan Rumus Perambatan Gelombang gempa di Batuan

 Gelombang Gempa (RINGKASAN)
• Gempa Bumi : Pergeseran Lempeng Tektonik, terjadi
akumulasi energi, slip pada daerah yang paling
lemah, terjadi gempa (Pelepasan Akumulasi Energi),
terjadi penampang baru.
• Setelah terjadi gempa : terjadi elastic rebound, stress
redistribution, adanya inhomoginity pada material
mengakibatkan terjadinya gesekan-gesekan lagi pada
daerah yang terlemah, disebut after shock (gempa
susulan)
• Energi yang dilepas pada saat terjadi gempabumi
akan dirambatkan kesegala arah dalam bentuk
gelombang.
Gelombang-Gelombang Seismic
Elastic Rebound Theory (Review)
 What is a Wave ?
• A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy.

• Waves are common in nature:

– Light is a wave
– Sound is a wave

• Waves are periodic in both space and time (they

have wavelengths and periods)
 Wave Terminology
• Wavelength is a measure of the spatial extent of a wave
(e.g., crest-to-crest or trough-to-trough). It has units of
length (m, km).

• Period is a measure of the duration of a vibration.

Period has units of time (s)

• Frequency is one over the period. It has units of one

over time (s-1≡Hz).

• Amplitude is a measure of the height of the wave. It has

units of displacement (cm, m).
 Wavelength and Period
Wavelength Period

Amplitude
Amplitude

Distance Time
from Source

At a given instant in time, the At a given fixed place, the

displacement is periodic in displacement is periodic in
space(distance). time.
 WAVES (review)
• Frequency: the number of oscillations per second. It is the inverse of the
period
• The frequency of seismic waves is a factor in determining the amount and
type of damage due to earthquakes

Short Wavelength

Long Wavelength
Figure 1
 Sources of Seismic Waves
• Earthquakes generate seismic waves, but so
do many other processes---for example:
– Volcanic eruptions
– Explosions
– Wind
– Surf
– Traffic
– Sonic Booms (planes, shuttle, meteorites)
– Humans
Seismic Wave Propagation
 Gelombang-Gelombang Seismic
• Percepatan pada permukaan tanah, seperti yang
digambarkan pada Seismograph, diakibatkan
bermacam-macam gelombang seismic yang
timbul akibat pecahnya patahan.
• Ada dua jenis utama gelombang seismic yaitu
gelombang badan dan gelombang permukaan.
• Gelombang P dan S (body waves) dapat
merambat melalui bagian dalam bumi.
• Gelombang permukaan (SURFACE WAVES )
merambat melalui permukaan bumi
 Seismic Wave Types
• Seismic waves can be
labeled by the paths
they take in the Earth.

Surface Waves:
(1) Love Waves
(2) Rayleigh Waves

Body Waves:
(1) P waves
(2) S waves
 Elastic Waves
• Seismic waves are also called elastic waves,
because they deform the Earth elastically - the
rock returns to its original shape and position
after the seismic wave passes through.
• An example of a non-elastic wave is a shock wave.
This type of wave fundamentally changes the
medium thru which it propagates (nonlinear
propagation is important for strong-motion
seismology).
 JENIS GELOMBANG
GEMPA BUMI

1. BODY WAVES
• GELOMBANG PRIMER

• GELOMBANG SEKUNDER

2. SURFACE WAVES
(GELOMBANG PERMUKAAN)

• GELOMBANG RAYLEIGH

• GELOMBANG LOVE
Penjalaran Gelombang Gempa

Raleygh
Tekan

Geser Love
 Elastic waves

P-waves:

S-waves:
 Gelombang badan (P-waves)
• Gelombang badan merambat di dalam bumi
serta terdiri atas dua tipe, yaitu : p-waves dan
s-wave.
• Tipe p-waves dikenal juga dengan sebutan
gelombang utama, atau gelombang kompresi,
atau gelombang membujur yang akan
menekan dan merapatkan material padat
maupun material cair yang dilaluinya
 Gelombang badan (P-waves)
• Dapat merambat melalui media padat dan cair
• Karena batuan dan tanah relatif tahan
terhadap pengaruh tarikan dan tekanan,
gelombang P biasanya mempunyai dampak
terkecil pada pergeseran permukaan tanah.
• Semakin besar energi yang dikandung oleh
gelombang gempa, maka amplitudonya akan
semakin besar.
• Kecepatan 6 km/sec in the crust
P P P P

Akibat Pengaruh Akibat Pengaruh

Gelombang Tekan Gelombang Tarik
 Gelombang badan (P-waves)
Gelombang ini seperti gelombang suara dengan arah
pengaruh gelombang sejajar dengan arah perambatannya.
Material yang dilaluinya memikul gaya tarik dan tekan
Gelombang ini dapat merambat melalui media padat dan
cair.
Semakin padat suatu lapisan tanah, kecepatan rambat
gelombang ini akan semakin besar.
Karena material geologi akan lebih kaku dalam kondisi
terkompresi, maka gelombang tekan ini akan merambat
lebih cepat dari pada tipe gelombang lainnya
 Pada batas-batas antara lapisan yang berbeda gelombang-gelombang
ini dapat dibiaskan dan dipantulkan
P and S waves

Smaller amplitude than surface (L) waves, but faster, P arrives first
 Gelombang badan (S-waves)
• Dapat merambat melalui media padat.
• Cairan tidak memiliki modulus geser, sehingga tidak
dapat dilalui oleh gelombang ini.
• Tahanan geser batuan dan tanah lebih kecil
dibandingkan dengan tahanan terhadap tarikan dan
tekanan, sehingga gelombang ini merambat lebih
lambat dibandingkan dengan gelombang P.
• Tanah memiliki modulus geser yang kecil, sehingga S
waves secara typikal memiliki dampak yang paling
besar terhadap pergeseran permukaan tanah.
• Causes shearing of rock perpendicular to
direction of wave propagation
Gelombang geser (Secondary wave, shear wave,
Transversal Waves).

• S-waves disebut juga sebagai gelombang sekunder,

gelombang geser, atau gelombang memotong yang
menyebabkan deformasi geser pada material yang
dilaluinya.
• Gerakan partikel tegak lurus terhadap arah perjalanan
gelombang.
• Arah partikel terbagi atas dua yaitu SV (Vertikal plane
movement dan SH (Horizontal plane movement).
• Gelombang ini tidak dapat merambat melalui media cair
dan kecepatan rambatnya tergantung kepada stiffness
material yang dilaluinya.
• Kecepatan rambat gelombang ini lebih kecil dibandingkan
dengan gelombang tekan, VP > VS.
S-Wave
 SEISMIC WAVES
COMPRESSIONAL
(P)
AND SHEAR (S)
WAVES
P waves
longitudinal waves
S waves transverse
waves

P waves travel
faster
S waves from
earthquake
generally larger

Stein & Wysession, 2003

Dipelajari
selisih waktu
tiba
gelombang
 Gelombang Badan
Kedua gelombang ini dapat dipantulkan
(reflected) dan dibiaskan (refracted pada
batasan-batasan lapisan yang berbeda dari
kulit bumi.
Suatu gelombang merupakan sumber gelombang
yang lain seperti cahaya, Hk. Snellius.
Pada batas-batas antara lapisan yang
berbeda gelombang-gelombang ini dapat
dibiaskan dan dipantulkan
 Gelombang Permukaan

• Gelombang permukaan terjadi akibat interaksi antara

gelombang badan dengan bagian permukaan lapisan
bumi.
• Gelombang ini menjalar sepanjang permukaan bumi
dengan panjang gelombang yang semakin berkurang
secara eksponensial terhadap kedalamannya.
• Akibat interaksi tersebut, gelombang permukaan
akan lebih besar efeknya pada jarak yang semakin
jauh dari sumber gempa.
• Cause vertical & horizontal shaking
• Travel exclusively along surface of earth
 Gelombang Permukaan

• Gelombang ini terdiri dari 2 bagian yaitu :

• 1. Reyleigh waves
• Yang berasal dari interaksi antara gelombang P dan SV dengan
permukaan bumi.
• Gelombang ini menjalar sepanjang permukaan bumi dengan
panjang gelombang semakin berkurang secara eksponensial
terhadap kedalamannya.
• 2. Love Waves
• Love waves berasal dari interaksi gelombang SH dengan
lapisan tanah yang lunak dan tidak mempunyai getaran
partikel arah vertical.
• Gelombang ini mirip mirip gelombang yang terjadi saat
sebutir batu dimasukkan kedalam suatu kolam.
 Gelombang Permukaan

• Complex motion, great destruction

• High amplitude and low velocity
• Longest periods (interval between crests)
• Termed long, or L waves
 L-Wave
• Love Waves
• The first kind of surface wave is called a Love
wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the
mathematical model for this kind of wave in
1911.
• It's the fastest surface wave and moves the
ground from side-to-side.
 L-Wave

Deformation
propagates
Particle
motion
Particle motion consists of alternating transverse motions. Particle motion is
horizontal and perpendicular to the direction of propagation (transverse).
Particle motion is purely horizontal, focus on the Y axis (black lines) as the
wave propagates through it. Amplitude decreases with depth (yellow lines).
Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.
 Rayleigh Waves

• Rayleigh Waves
• The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named
for John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically
predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885.
• A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls
across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the
ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction
that the wave is moving.
• Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other
waves.
 Rayleigh Waves
Particle
motion

Deformation
propagates

Particle motion consists of elliptical motions (generally retrograde elliptical) in

the vertical plane and parallel to the direction of propagation. Amplitude
decreases with depth. Material returns to its original shape after wave
passes.
Two Types of Surface Waves
Most of the destruction
Larger amplitude than body waves
Elastic waves – Surface waves

Surface waves: Rayleigh and Love waves

 Their amplitude diminishes with the depth.
 They have large amplitudes and are slower than
body waves.
 These are dispersive waves (large periods are
faster).
Penjalaran
Gelombang
Gempa
During an earthquake event seismic
(energy) waves propagate concentrically
from the initiation point of fault motion.

Body waves (P- and S- waves) travel

through the earth and are subject to
refraction as they propagate through
different compositonal zones of the earth.
Remember the difference in properties of
P- versus S- waves.

Surface waves are created from residual

energy as the body waves reach and
interact at the surface of the earth.
Surface waves are restricted to the surface
of the earth and can cause significant
damage to structures during an earthquake
event.
Different kinds of damage….

P-wave

S-wave

Sfc-wave

All
Seismographic recording of P, S and surface waves
Contoh waktu tibanya gelombang
gempa
 Seismic Wave Types
Surface Waves Body Waves

– Large amplitude – Small amplitude

– Long wavelength – Short wavelength
– Wide range of frequencies – Narrow frequency band
(large bandwidth)
– Travel more quickly
– Dispersive
– Produced by all
– Travel slowly earthquakes
– Not produced by deep
earthquakes
 r -2 r -2 r -0.5
+
Rayleigh wave
+ Vertical Horizontal
componentcomponent

Shear Relative
- + wave + - amplitude

r -1

+
+
r
Shear r -1 Wave Type Percentage of
window
Total Energy
Rayleigh 67
Waves Shear 26
Compression 7
Fundamentals-Modeling-Properties-Performance
• Terima kasih
 Reflection and refraction of seismic waves

A beam of light is refracted

or reflected when it crosses
the boundary between air
and water. Seismic waves
behave similarly at P and S Waves radiate from an earthquake focus in many
boundaries within the Earth. directions

from Press and Siever (1994)

 Labeling Waves.

P = direct P
S = direct S
p = P-wave that travels up first
s = S-wave that travels up first
PP = One bounce at surface of P wave
SS = One bounce at surface of S wave
c = reflection from core
K = P wave through outer core
I = P wave through inner core
i = P wave refected from inner core
J = S wave through inner core

Combine:
PcP = P wave that bounces off outer core and goes to surface
PcS = P wave that bounces off outer core and converts to S which
Travels to the surface
ScS = S wave that bounces off outer core and goes to surface
etc
P waves can travel through solids, liquids
and gases.
S waves can travel only through solids.
Figure on
page 359

P-waves can pass through parts of the core

 Earth’s layered structure
• Recordings of seismic waves around the world reveal shadow
zones on the earth’s surface.
• Shadow zones are locations on the earth’s surface where
neither S waves nor P waves are detected or where only P
waves are detected.
• Shadow zones occur because the materials that make up the
earth’s interior are not uniform in rigidity.
• When seismic waves travel through materials of differing
rigidities, their speed changes, causing the waves to bend and
change direction.
Seismic “phases” are named according to their paths

P – P wave only in the mantle

PP – P wave reflected off earths surface so there are two P wave segments in
the mantle
cP – P wave that travels upward from a deep earthquake, reflects off the
surface and then has a single segment in the mantle
PKP – P wave that has two segments in the mantle separated by a segment in
the core
Ray path examples…
Ray path examples…
Figure on
page 359

S-waves do not pass through the outer core

 Gelombang-Gelombang Seismic
• Pengaruh kombinasi gelombang-gelombang
ini akan menghasilkan peak ground
acceleration, amax.
• Nilai peak ground acceleration ini akan
kebanyakan dipengaruhi oleh S-waves.
• Tetapi untuk beberapa kasus dimana jaraknya
lebih besar dari 2 kali ketebalan kerak bumi,
gelombang permukaan akan menghasilkan
puncak getaran di tanah
Velocity Variation with Depth