System Modeling & Simulation

Modeling the Aircraft

 Model building is a fundamental process.
 An aircraft designer has a mental model of the type of aircraft that is needed,
uses physical models to gather wind tunnel data, and designs with mathematical
models that incorporate the experimental data.
 The mathematical model is used, in conjunction with computer simulation, to
evaluate the performance of the prototype aircraft and hence improve the design.
 Mathematical models are used in all aspects of the aircraft design (e.g., Structural
models for studying stress distribution and predicting fatigue life).
 To simulate the motion of aircraft on a digital computer, a mathematical model is
necessary.
 The general equations of motion for aircraft are non-linear differential equations
where the longitudinal and lateral motion variables are coupled.
A model is a representation of an event and/or things that is real.
It can be a representation of an actual system.
Steps:
Models are approximations of the real world.
To engage modeling and simulation, First create a model approximating an event.
The model is then followed by simulation, which allows for repeated observation
of the model.
Analysis aids in ability to draw conclusions ,verify and validate the research, and
make recommendations based on various iterations or simulations of the model.
 Definition
 The model can depict the system at some point of abstraction or at multiple levels of the
abstraction with the goal of representing the system in a mathematically reliable fashion.
A Simulation is an applied methodology that can describe the behaviour of that system
using either a mathematical model or a symbolic model.
Simply, simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over
a period of time.
Mathematical modeling of aerospace vehicles is a three step process
1.Formulation of vehicle dynamics in invariant tensor form.
2.Introduction of coordinate systems for component presentation, and
3.Formulation of problems in matrices for computer programming and numerical
solutions.
 There are a number of ways to study a system
The actual system versus a model of the system.
A physical versus mathematical representation
Analytical solution versus simulation solution.
In the context of simulation, modelling means the design of mathematical equations
which produce numerical representations of the real world under equivalent input
conditions.
 BASIC COMPONENTS
Entity An object “component” in
the system

Attribute A property of an entity

Activity A process that cause

changes in the system

System State Description of system

“entities, attributes, and
activities "at any point in
time
 BASIC COMPONENTS
System Definition Examples

Discrete Variables Instantaneous changes •Digital signals

at separated points in •Integer variables
time •Number of people

Continuous Variables Continuous change •Analog signals

with respect to time. •Temperature
•Speed

Deterministic Outcome can be System Monitoring

Activities described completely
in terms of the input

Stochastic Activities Random System failures

Occurrence/Outcome
 Static Vs Dynamic Model
Static models Dynamic models

System representation at a Instantaneous changes at separated

“particular time” points in time

Time plays no role: “Changes over time”

“Time independent”

System is “in balance” System is “not in balance”

 Physical Vs Mathematical Model
Physical models Mathematical models

System representation by “Physical “Attributes” of system

means”
“Electrical, mechanical, hydraulic”
or other physical representation of
the system”
“Entities” are represented by
“Variables” , and “activities” are
represented by “functions”.
A simple model: “Moving car”
Distance=Speed × Time.
 Analytical Vs Numerical
Analytical Methods Numerical Methods

Investigating / solving “models”: Investigating “models” / solving

using the “deductive reasoning” of “equations”: using “Computational
“Mathematical theory” procedures”

“Electrical, mechanical, hydraulic” Developing / using “numerical tables”

or other physical representation of computed using “numerical methods”.
the system”
 System Modeling and Simulation
 To study a system with the help of mathematical models and computers.
What is a System?
Any object which has some action to perform and is dependent on number of objects
called entities is a system.
Example: Classroom, College (or) University.
Each entity has its own attributes (or) properties.
Example: Aircraft is a system. It consists of cockpit, airframes, control system, Fuel
tank,engines etc.
An aircraft consisting of these interdependent blocks is a large system.
System broadly divided into two types
(i). Static system
(ii). Dynamic system
 System Modeling and Simulation

A system in general, consists of a collection of variables needed to describe its

dynamic behavior at some point in time.
A term entity will be used to denote an object of interest in a system and the term
attributes denotes its properties.
A function to be performed by the entity is called its activity.
The state is defined as collection of variables necessary to describe the system at
any time, relative to the objectives of the study.
An event is defined as an instantaneous occurrences that may change the state
of the system.
Sometimes the system is effected by the environment. Such a system is called
exogenous. If it is not effected by the environment, it is called endogenous.
 System Modeling and Simulation

Model is used for variety of reasons:

1.to study basic dynamic characteristics of the system.
2.to predict future behavior of the system.e.g.,Weather Forecasting
3.to analyze the stability and control characteristics of the system so as to help
monitor, modify, regulate,or control the behavior of the dynamic
process/plant/system, e.g., chemical reactors.
4.to simulate the responses of the system for various kinds of inputs/environment,
e.g., Flight dynamics simulator.
A mathematical model is a simplified representation of a system that helps in
understanding, predicting, and possibly controlling the behavior of the system.
A real-life dynamic system can be modeled using a mathematical model ,which
should be obtained, refined, and validated based on the acquired/actual data from
the experiments on the system.
 Model of an autopilot aircraft

 In case of the autopilot aircraft discussed above, entities of the system are
gyroscope, airframe and control surfaces. Attributes respectively are gyroscope
setting, speed and control surface angles. Activity of the aircraft is to fly.
 Simulation
Conducting trials on computer.
By simulation one can, not only predict the system behaviour but also can
suggest improvement in it.
Ex: Lethal capabilities of the weapon which are studied by evaluating its
terminal effects i.e., the damage caused by a typical weapon on a relevant target
when it is dropped on it.
System can be defined as
(i).Continuous systems (ii).Discrete systems
Fluid flow in a pipe, motion of an aircraft or trajectory of a projectile, are examples
of continuous systems.
Motion of an aircraft is continuous but if there is a sudden change in aircraft’s level
to weather conditions, is a discrete system. Another example of discrete system is
firing of a gun on an enemy target.
While making a model one should keep in mind
five basic steps.
• Block building
• Relevance
• Accuracy
• Aggregation
• Validation
Types of models
 Physical models
Static physical model is a scaled down model of a system which does not change with time.
Example for static model: scaled down model of building.
Dynamic physical models are ones which change with time or which are function of time.
Example for Dynamic model: Hanging wheel of vehicle.
Consider two systems as shown in figure.
 Physical models
Fig 1.2 represents a mass that is subject to an applied force F(t) varying with time, a spring whose force is
proportional to its extension or contraction , and a shock absorber that exerts a damping force proportional to
the velocity of the mass.
Using Newton’s second law of motions, system for wheel model can be expressed in mathematical form as

Equation of electrical circuit can be written as

 Mathematical model

Static mathematical model: Mathematical model of a system, in

equilibrium is called a Static Mathematical Model.
Model of a stationary hanging wheel equation (1.1) is a dynamic
mathematical model, as equations of the model are function of time.
 Concept of scale model

The term “scale” refers to the proportions of the model as compared

to the proportions of the real thing.
Scale is usually expressed as a fraction but it is also a ratio.
A 1/48 scale model is the same as a 1:48 scale model;either one is
precisely 48 times smaller than the real aircraft,every detail and line of
the model is 1/48 the size of the real aircraft,right down to the diameter
of the landing wheels and tires and the thickness of the frames around
the canopy or cockpit.
Aircraft mathematical model
 Aerodynamic model
The primary or core elements were defined as those which directly produce the external forces acting on the
airframe, namely aerodynamics, engine thrust and undercarriage.
Secondary elements of a model contribute significantly to the core, and include a control system and an
atmospheric environment.
1.Aerodynamic model:
The aerodynamic model enables the aerodynamic forces and moments to be computed.
A model can best based on an extensive set of aerodynamic data, which has been previously built on an
extensive set of aerodynamic data, which has been previously built on the results of flight testing in different
parts of the flight envelope.
The aerodynamic model has to reproduce the dominant features of the forces and moments acting on the
aircraft.
Forces and moments may need to be expressed as functions of one or more of the following:
o Angle of attack
oControl deflections
oSpeed/Mach number
oRotation rates
oHeight
oCentre of gravity position
oGround proximity
oGeometry(e.g., flap setting, wing sweep)
 Engine model
The engine model is a model of engine dynamics, which is used to derive engine thrust, fuel flows
and engine pressures and rotation speeds.
An engine model must first produce the correct value of steady thrust to correspond with the pilot’s
demand through his power lever.
Thrust can be modelled as net thrust i.e the net propulsive force, having allowed for intake
momentum drag.
A basic gas turbine engine consists of an inlet, compressors,combustion chamber, turbines and
exhaust nozzle.
There are two basic methods
1.Total output simulation method: In this approach the various required outputs, shaft
speeds, thrust,etc., are defined as complex mathematical functions of the input conditions and are
used in an open loop.It is difficult to incorporate failure cases for training,it is inflexible,and it is
expensive in computation time.
2.Component simulation method: This method involves the modelling of each major
component of the engine,e.g., compressor, combustor,turbine and nozzle, using theoretical
thermodynamics, together with components of the ancillary systems, such as the starter and the oil
system.It is very expensive in time.
 Undercarriage model
If a simulated aircraft is going to take-off or land,it must have
some means of support when in contact with the ground.An
undercarriage model provides this support.
A real undercarriage is a complex mechanical,hydraulic and
sometimes pneumatic assembly,which can be modelled in a
variety of ways.
Providing some ground reactions sufficient to balance the
aircraft’s weight can be done by a simple spring and damper
model,with extra damping on recoil.
Depending on the simulation task,however, a detailed model
may be necessary,to include tyres and brakes,anti-skid
systems and nose-wheel steering.
The total force is given by
F=Faero +Fengine + Fundercarriage
A full atmospheric model needs to represent a number of
properties. The starting point is the variation of air density and
temperature with altitude, as defined by the international
standard atmosphere.
‘Ground effect’-The presence of the ground close to the
aircraft during take-off and landing so constrains the airflow
round the aircraft that the forces acting differ markedly from
those applicable to the same configuration in free air.
 Control system
The control system also needs modelling.Interposed
between the pilot’s control stick and the vehicle’s control
surfaces,it consists typically of a system of levers,cables
and bell-cranks,terminating in a hydraulically actuated jack.
Various mechanical deficiencies may need to be
modelled,such as cable stretch,control jams,etc.
Aerodynamicists use wind tunnels to test models of proposed aircraft and engine components. The model is
placed in the test section of the tunnel and air is made to flow past the model. In some wind tunnel tests, the
aerodynamic forces on the model are measured. In some wind tunnel tests, the model is instrumented to
provide diagnostic information about the flow of air around the model. Model instrumentation can include static
pressure taps, tufts on the surface, or total pressure rakes.
Actual F-18 has a twin engine exhausts at the rear of the aircraft as shown in the small in-flight photo.
To accurately predict the drag of the aircraft, corrections must be applied to the data from the airframe test to
account for the nozzle exhaust.
 Dynamic modeling of the Quad-Rotor aircraft
Deriving mathematical modeling or differential equations is necessary
for the control of the quad-rotor position and altitude.
Since the quad-rotor type aircraft includes highly non-linear factors,
we need to consider several assumptions in order to get a desired
model.
1.The body is rigid and symmetrical
2.The rotors are rigid, i.e. no blade flapping occurs.
3.The difference of gravity by altitude or the spin of the
earth is minor.
4.The center of mass and body fixed frame origin
coincide
 Dynamic modeling of the Quad-Rotor aircraft

The coordinate system can be divided into an earth frame {E} and a body frame as
shown in figure.
 Dynamic modeling of the Quad-Rotor aircraft
The rotational transformation matrix between the earth frame
and the body frame can be obtained based on Euler angles in
fig2.

The transformation of velocities between the earth frame and

body frame can be derived from eqn.1
 Dynamic modeling of the Quad-Rotor aircraft
In the body frame, the forces are presented as

Accordingly in the earth frame,the forces can be defined as

Therefore, equations of motion in the earth frame are derived

by newton’s law

Where Kfx,kfy,Kfz are the drag coefficients which can be ignored
at low speeds.
 Dynamic modeling of the Quad-Rotor aircraft
By extending the newton’s law on rotational dynamics,its equation can
be written as

Where l-distance from centre of rotors to the quad-rotor aircraft center

of mass. Kl and Kd indicate the lift coefficient and drag coefficient
respectively.ωi is the angular rotor speed. Ix,Iy,Iz are moments of inertia
of the quadrotor.
 Dynamic modeling of the Quad-Rotor aircraft
The complete dynamic model which governs the quad-rotor aircraft is
as follows

Where Ui (i=1,2,3,4) are control inputs of the model

 Control of the Quad-Rotor aircraft
The PD controllers are implemented on each of the four axes of the
quad-rotor aircraft ,namely altitude, roll, pitch and yaw.
 The simulation space and the definition of ‘models’
The simulation space is divided into three basic elements.
1.Reality
2.Conceptual model
3.Computer model
 Verification and Validation
Verification and validation are important aspects of any simulation
project; indeed they are essential prerequisites to the credible and
reliable use of a model and its results.
In properly conducted simulation projects the accuracy of the
simulation, and the models upon which the simulation is based, is
assessed,measured,and established via verification and validation.
In modeling and simulation,verification is typically defined
analogously,as the process of determining if an implemented model is
consistent with its specification.
 Verification and Validation
Typical questions to be answered during verification include
1.Does the program code of the executable model correctly
implement the conceptual model?
2.Does the conceptual model satisfy the intended use of the
model?
3.Does the executable model produce results when it is needed
and in the required format(s)?
 Verification and Validation
In modeling and simulation, validation is the process of determining the
degree to which the model is an accurate representation of the simuland.
The process of validation assesses the accuracy of the models.
Typical questions to be answered during validation include
1.Does the program code of the executable model correctly
implement the conceptual model?
2.Does the conceptual model satisfy the intended use of the
model?
3.Does the executable model produce results when it is needed
and in the required format(s)?
 Verification and Validation
The validation process can be broken down into components.
Data source can be checked, perhaps by comparing wind tunnel
results with the results from flight.
The performance of hardware can be compared to specification.
The response to control inputs can be calculated independently, and
then compared with the equivalent response measured from the
simulator.
But the final test is the pilot’s subjective impression of whether the
simulator is like the aircraft.
 coordinate system

To describe the motion of airplane it is necessary to define a suitable

coordinate system for the formulation of the equations of motion.
One coordinate system is fixed to the earth and may be considered
for the purpose of aircraft motion analysis to be an inertial coordinate
system.
The other coordinate system is fixed to the airplane and is referred to
as body coordinate system.
The location and orientation of the noninertial frame relative to the
inertial frame specify the aircraft’s position and orientation.