RESISTANCE

If an object inserted in an electrical circuit displays a current

flow which is proportional to the voltage difference across it,
then we define its resistance as the constant ratio
∆U The units of resistance are volts/ampere,
R= usually abbreviated as ohms, symbolized with
I the capital Greek letter omega (Ω )

Technically speaking the resistance would be opposition to

electric current.

The first, and perhaps most important, relationship between

current, voltage, and resistance is called Ohm’s Law,
discovered by George Simon Ohm and published in his 1827
paper, The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically. 1
When electrons move against the opposition of resistance,
”friction” is generated. Just like mechanical friction, the friction
produced by electrons flowing against a resistance manifests
itself in the form of heat. The concentrated resistance of a
lamp’s filament results in a relatively large amount of heat
energy dissipated at that filament. This heat energy is enough
to cause the filament to glow white-hot, producing light,
whereas the wires connecting the lamp to the electrical
source (which have much lower resistance) hardly even get
warm while conducting the same amount of current.

2
If objects of the same size and shape made from two different
ohmic materials have different resistances, we can say that one
material is more resistive than the other, or equivalently that it is
less conductive. Materials, such as metals, that are very
conductive are said to be good conductors. Those that are
extremely poor conductors, for example wood or rubber, are
classified as insulators. There is no sharp distinction between
the two classes of materials. Some, such as silicon, lie midway
between the two extremes, and are called semiconductors.

3
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE AT 20 DEGREES CELSIUS
Nichrome ------ Alloy ----------- 112.2 (µ ohm cm)
Nichrome V ---- Alloy ----------- 108.1
Manganin ------ Alloy ----------- 48.21
Specific Resistance
Constantan ---- Alloy -------- 45.38
(ρ ) is a property of
Steel* -------- Alloy ----------- 16.62
any conductive
Platinum ----- Element --------- 10.5
material, which is
Iron --------- Element --------- 9.61
defined as resistivity,
Nickel ------- Element --------- 6.93
a figure used to
Zinc --------- Element --------- 5.90
determine the end-to-
Molybdenum --- Element --------- 5.34
end resistance of a
Tungsten ----- Element --------- 5.28
conductor given length
Aluminum ----- Element --------- 2.650
and cross-sectional
Gold --------- Element --------- 2.214
area.
Copper ------- Element --------- 1.678
Silver ------- Element --------- 1.587
* = Steel alloy at 99.5 percent iron, 0.5 percent carbon 4
 Electrical resistance depends on its size and shape.
Electrical resistance is inversely proportional to cross-
sectional area and directly proportional to length.
Analogously, it is harder to blow through a long and
narrow straw than through a short and wide one.

(Ω )

ρ = specific resistance ( Ω m )
l = length ( m )
A = cross sectional area ( m2 )
Conductor resistance
increases with increased
length and decreases with
increased cross-sectional
area, all other factors being
equal.
5
 Temperature coefficient of resistance

Resistance values for conductors at any temperature other

than the standard temperature (usually specified at 20 deg
Celsius) on the specific resistance table must be determined
through yet another formula:
R = Rref [1 + α (T - Tref )] (Ω )

R = conductor resistance at temperature "T"

Rref = conductor resistance at reference temperature
α = temperature coefficient of resistance for the
conductor material (1 / oC).
T = conductor temperature in degrees Celsius.
Tref = reference temperature that a is specified at
for the conductor material. Tref , usually 20o C, but 6
o
Material Element/Alloy “α " per degree Celsius
Nickel --------- Element --------------- 0.005866
Iron ------------ Element --------------- 0.005671
Molybdenum Element --------------- 0.004579
Tungsten ----- Element --------------- 0.004403
Aluminum ---- Element --------------- 0.004308
Copper --------Element --------------- 0.004041
Silver ---------- Element --------------- 0.003819
Platinum ------ Element --------------- 0.003729
Gold ---------- Element --------------- 0.003715
Zinc ---------- Element --------------- 0.003847
Steel* --------- Alloy ------------------- 0.003
Nichrome ----- Alloy ------------------- 0.00017
Nichrome V -- Alloy ------------------- 0.00013
Manganin ---- Alloy -------------- +/- 0.000015
Constantan -- Alloy ------------------ -0.000074
* = Steel alloy at 99.5 percent iron, 0.5 percent carbon 7
Special components called resistors are made for the
express purpose of creating a precise quantity of resistance
for insertion into a circuit. They are typically constructed of
metal wire or carbon, and engineered to maintain a stable
resistance value over a wide range of environmental
conditions.
The most common schematic symbol for a resistor is a zig-
zag line or rectangular box:

Because resistors dissipate heat energy as the electric

currents through them overcome the ”friction” of their
resistance, resistors are also rated in terms of how much heat
energy they can dissipate without overheating and sustaining
damage.

8
An example of a resistor with a color code.

9
 Series resistances
All the current that
flows through one
resistor must also
flow through the other
(as well as through
the battery).

I1 = I 2 = I Ub = U1 + U2

I x R = I x R1 + I x R2 I

RT = R1 + R2
Doubling the length of a resistor is
like putting two resistors in series.
10
The resistance is doubled.
 Parallel resistances and the junction rule

The voltage drops U1 and U2 across the resistors

I1 must both equal the voltage of the battery.
Ub = U1 = U2 = U I = I1 + I2
I2
Ub U1 U2 1 1 1
I = + U = +
RT R1 R2 RT R1 R2
R1 x R2 R
RT = If R1 = R2 = R RT =
R1 + R2 2
Uniting four resistors in parallel is equivalent
to making a single resistor with the same
length but four times the cross-sectional
area. The result is to make a resistor with
11
one quarter the resistance.
 Dissipated power
Dissipated power in a resistance manifests itself in the form
of heat, and excessive heat can be damaging to a wire (not
to mention objects near the wire!), especially considering the
fact that most wires are insulated with a plastic or rubber
coating, which can melt and burn. Thin wires will, therefore,
tolerate less current than thick wires, all other factors being
equal.

P = I2 x R (W)

12
 MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

Magnetism, a phenomenon related to electricity, is a class of

phenomena caused by moving charges.
Moving charges, called currents, are the sources of magnetic
fields just as charges are the sources of electric fields.

13
 Magnetic Field
Currents produce magnetic fields, a phenomenon described
mathematically by the Biot-Savart Law and Ampère's Law.
The magnetic field generated by a current travels in a circular
path around the current in a plane perpendicular to the flow of
charge i.e. current.

It is a unique and fundamental property of magnetic field that,

unlike electric field, does not begin on a charge and end on a
charge. On the contrary, magnetic fields close in on themselves,
14
forming a circular field path.
Right hand rule

15
 Magnetomotive force

Magnetomotive force symbol F, is the force which establish

magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit (its analogy in the electric
circuit is e.m.f. which establish a current in the electrical circuit).

(weber)

F=N*I (Ampere turns)

F=N*I

16
 Magnetic field intensity (strength)

Magnetic field intensity, symbol H is defined as m.m.f. per

unit length of the magnetic circuit

F N*I A
H= = ( )
l l m

F = H * l (A)

H*l=N*I

17
 Kirchhoff’s laws for magnetic circuits

First law: The total magnetic flux towards a junctions is

equal to the total magnetic flux away from that junction

Φ = Φ + Φ
Φ3 1 2 3
Φ2
Σ Φ= 0

Φ1

18
Second law: In any closed magnetic circuit, the algebraic
sum of the product of the magnetic field intensity and of
each part of the circuit is equal to the resultant
magnetomotive force.
Total m.m.f of coil is

l1 N ∗ I = H1 ∗ l1 + H2 ∗ l2
Φ3
Φ2
N ∗ I = H1 ∗ l1 + H3 ∗ l3

H2 ∗ l2 = H3 ∗ l3
l2
In general
Φ1 l3
Σ m.m.f = 0
19
 Magnetic flux density

Magnetic flux density symbol B, is the amount of flux passing

through unit area perpendicular to the “direction” of the flux.
The unit of flux density is the tesla.

Φ Wb
B = [ = T ]
A m2
Φ
Φ
A B =
A

20
 INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE COMPONENTS

Any current will create a magnetic field, so in fact every

current-carrying wire in a circuit acts as an inductor.
However, this type of “stray" inductance is typically negligible,
just as we can usually ignore the stray resistance of our wires
and only take into account the actual resistors. To store any
appreciable amount of magnetic energy, one usually uses a
coil of wire designed specifically to be an inductor. All the
loops' contribution to the magnetic field add together to make
a stronger field.
The ability of an inductor to store energy in the form of a
magnetic field (and consequently to oppose changes in
current) is called inductance. It is measured in the unit of the
Henry (H).
21
 Factors affecting inductance

There are four basic factors of inductor construction

determining the amount of inductance created. These factors
all dictate inductance by affecting how much magnetic field
flux will develop for a given amount of magnetic field force
(current through the inductor’s wire coil):
1. Number of wire wraps L = Inductance of coil in Henrys
or “turns” in the coil µ = Permeability of core material
2. Coil area (absolute, not relative)
3. Coil length A = Area of coil in square
4. Core material meters = π r2
l = Average length of coil in
N2 µ A meters
L= (H)
N = Number of turns in wire coil
l
(straight wire = 1) 22
 Permeability

Permeability symbol (µ ) is the specific measure of a material's

acceptance of magnetic flux, analogous to the specific
resistance of a conductive material (ρ), except inverse (greater
permeability means easier passage of magnetic flux, whereas
greater specific resistance means more difficult passage of
electric current).
Permeability of free space or For ferromagnetic material
vacuum and non magnetic permeability increases by
materials, symbol µ 0 is factor µ r, called relative
defined as permeability, where µ r > 1
B H ( up to 7000 and even more).
µ = 4 π 10 [ ] Absolute permeability:
0=
-7
H m B
µ = = µ r∗ µ 0
23
H
 "Ohm’s Law" for an inductor

Inductors do not have a stable ”resistance” as conductors do.

However, there is a definite mathematical relationship
between voltage and current for an inductor, as follows:

di
u=L
dt

u = Instantaneous voltage
across the inductor
L = Inductance in Henrys
di/dt = Instantaneous rate of
current change (amps per
second)
24
 Three principal methods of inducing an e.m.f.

1. Self induction

dφ (t )
e (t )= − N ⋅
dt
25
2. Induction by motion

dφ
e= − = B ⋅ ⋅ v
dt
26
2. Induction by motion (rotation)

A’ = A cos α

dφ d
e(t )= − N = −N ( B⋅ A⋅ cosω t )
dt dt
e(t )= N ⋅ B⋅ A⋅ ω ⋅ sinω t 27
3. Mutual induction

dφ (t )
e2 (t ) = − N 2 ⋅
dt

N2

28
 Mutual inductance
The unit of mutual inductance, symbol M is henry [ H ].

If two coils have a mutual inductance

of 1 H between them, then an e.m.s.
of 1 V is induced in one coil when the
N1 current in the other coil change at the
rate of 1 A per second.

di1 dΦ 2
1
E2 = M dt = N2 dt

Φ2 dΦ 2
N2 M = N2 [H]
di1

29
 Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, there is an interaction between the magnetic field
produced by the current and the permanent field, which
leads to a force being experienced by the conductor.

F = BI l [N] 30
 Series and parallel inductances

Inductance behave similar to resistors when connected in

series or parallel.

In series LT = L1 + L2+ …..+ LN

1 1 1 1
= + +,,,,,,,,,,,+
In parallel LT L1 L2 LN

31
 CAPACITORS

Whenever an electric voltage exists between two separated

conductors, an electric field is present within the space
between those conductors.
Capacitors are components designed to take advantage of
this phenomenon by placing two conductive plates (usually
metal) in close proximity with each other. There are many
different styles of capacitor construction, each one suited for
particular ratings and purposes.

32
When a voltage is applied across the two plates of a
capacitor, a concentrated field flux is created between them,
allowing a significant difference of free electrons (a charge)
to develop between the two plates.

Because capacitors store the potential energy of

accumulated electrons in the form of an electric field, they
behave quite differently than resistors (which simply
dissipate energy in the form of heat) in a circuit. Energy
storage in a capacitor is a function of the voltage between
33
the plates, as well as other factors.
 Factors affecting capacitance

There are three basic factors of capacitor construction

determining the amount of capacitance created. These factors
all dictate capacitance by affecting how much electric field flux
(relative difference of electrons between plates) will develop
for a given amount of electric field force (voltage between the
two plates).
C = Capacitance in Farads
1. Plate area e = Permittivity of dielectric
2. Plate spacing (absolute, not relative)
3. Dielectric material A = Area of plate overlap in
square meters
ε A d = Distance between plates in
C= (F) meters
d
34
”Relative” permittivity means the permittivity of a material,
relative to that of a pure vacuum.
The greater the number, the greater the permittivity of the
material. Glass, for instance, with a relative permittivity of 7,
has seven times the permittivity of a pure vacuum, and
consequently will allow for the establishment of an electric
field flux seven times stronger than that of a vacuum, all
other factors being equal.

35
Material Relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
Vacuum ------------------------- 1.0000
Air ---------------------------- 1.0006
PTFE, FEP ("Teflon") ----------- 2.0
Polypropylene ------------------ 2.20 to 2.28
ABS resin ---------------------- 2.4 to 3.2
Polystyrene -------------------- 2.45 to 4.0
Waxed paper -------------------- 2.5
Transformer oil ---------------- 2.5 to 4
Hard Rubber -------------------- 2.5 to 4.80
Wood (Oak) --------------------- 3.3
Silicones ---------------------- 3.4 to 4.3
Bakelite ----------------------- 3.5 to 6.0
Quartz, fused ------------------ 3.8
Wood (Maple) ------------------- 4.4
Glass -------------------------- 4.9 to 7.5
36
 "Ohm’s Law" for a capacitor

Capacitors do not have a stable ”resistance” as conductors

do. However, there is a definite mathematical relationship
between voltage and current for a capacitor, as follows:

du
i=C
dt
i = Instantaneous current
through the capacitor
C = Capacitance in Farads
du/dt = Instantaneous rate
of voltage change (volts per
second)

37
 The capacitor acts as a LOAD

Energy being absorbed by

the capacitor from the rest
to the rest of of the circuit - charging
the circuit
increasing
voltage

The capacitor acts as a SOURCE

Energy being released by

the capacitor to the rest
to the rest of of the circuit - discharging
the circuit
decreasing
voltage 38
Capacitors act somewhat like secondary-cell batteries when
faced with a sudden change in applied voltage: they initially
react by producing a high current which tapers off over
time.
• A fully discharged capacitor initially acts as a short circuit
(current with no voltage drop) when faced with the sudden
application of voltage. After charging fully to that level of
voltage, it acts as an open circuit (voltage drop with no
current).
• In a resistor-capacitor charging circuit, capacitor voltage
goes from nothing to full source voltage while current goes
from maximum to zero, both variables changing most
rapidly at first, approaching their final values slower and
slower as time goes on.

39
40
(35V;20,000 µF)

41
 Series and parallel capacitors
When capacitors are When capacitors are
connected in series, the total connected in parallel, the
capacitance is less than any total capacitance is the sum
one of the series capacitors’ of the individual capacitors’
individual capacitances. capacitances.

C1 x C2
CT =
C1 + C2

1
CT =
1 1 1 CT = C1 + C2
+ +…..
C1 C1 Cn 42
Capacitors, like all electrical components, have limitations
which must be respected for the sake of reliability and proper
circuit operation.

Working voltage: Since capacitors are nothing more than two

conductors separated by an insulator (the dielectric), you must
pay attention to the maximum voltage allowed across it. If too
much voltage is applied, the ”breakdown” rating of the
dielectric material may be exceeded, resulting in the capacitor
internally short-circuiting.

Polarity: Some capacitors are manufactured so they can only

tolerate applied voltage in one polarity but not the other. This is
due to their construction: the dielectric is a microscopically
thin layer of insulation deposited on one of the plates by a DC
voltage during manufacture. These are called electrolytic
capacitors, and their polarity is clearly marked. 43
Danger associated with capacitors

44
 R, L, C and Z in AC circuits

AC resistor circuits

Because the resistor simply and directly resists the flow of

electrons at all periods of time, the waveform for the
voltage drop across the resistor is exactly in phase with the
waveform for the current through it.

45
 The power dissipated by the resistor

Average power
P = Urms x Irms (W)

The power is never a negative value. This consistent “polarity”

of power tells us that the resistor is always dissipating power,
taking it from the source and releasing it in the form of heat
energy. Whether the current is positive or negative, a resistor
still dissipates energy.

46
 AC inductor circuits

Inductors oppose changes in current through them, by

dropping a voltage directly proportional to the rate of change
of current. u = L (di/dt)
In accordance with Lenz's Law, this induced
voltage is always of such a polarity as to try to maintain
current at its present value. That is, if current is increasing in
magnitude, the induced voltage will “push against” the
electron flow; if current is decreasing, the polarity will reverse
and “push with” the electron flow to oppose the decrease.
47
This opposition to current change is called reactance, rather
 The instantaneous power

Average power = 0

Because instantaneous power is the product of the

instantaneous voltage and the instantaneous current (p = i x e),
the power equals zero whenever the instantaneous current or
voltage is zero. Negative power means that the inductor is
releasing power back to the circuit, while a positive power
means that it is absorbing power from the circuit. Since the
positive and negative power cycles are equal in magnitude and
duration over time, the inductor releases just as much power
back to the circuit as it absorbs over the span of a complete
48
cycle.
The power that surges back and forth in thus manner is
called reactive power (Q) to distinguish it from the active
power (P). The unit of reactive power is VAr, while the unit for
active power is W. Both powers function independently of
each other and they can not be converted into the other and
they have to be treated as separate quantities in electrical
circuit.

49
This opposition to alternating current is similar to resistance,
but different in that it always results in a phase shift between
current and voltage, and it dissipates zero power.
Because of the differences, it has a different name:
reactance. Reactance to AC is expressed in ohms, just like
resistance is, except that its mathematical symbol is X instead
of R. To be specific, reactance associate with an inductor is
usually symbolized by the capital letter X with a letter L as a
subscript, like this: XL.

The exact formula for determining reactance is as follows:

XL = 2π fL

50
 Series resistor-inductor circuits

XL = 2π fL = 2* 3.142*50*0.01 = 3.142Ω

Ztotal = R + jXL XL
ϕ = arc tan
Ztotal = (5 Ω ∠ 0o) + (3.142 Ω ∠ 900) R
3.142
(5 Ω ) + (j3.142 Ω ) ϕ = arc tan
5
2
Ztotal = 5 + 3.142 2 = 5.9Ω ∠ 32.10 ϕ = 32.10
51
XL= 3.142Ω ; R = 5Ω ; Z = 5.9Ω Active power
P = I2 * R = 1.6952 * 5
ET 10
I= = = 1.695 A P = 14.37 W
Z 5.9
Reactive power
EL = I * XL = 1.695 * 3.142 Q = I2 * XL = 1.6952 * 3.142
EL = 5.33 V Q = 9.03 VAr
Apparent power
ER = I * R = 1.695 * 5 = 8.48 V
S = P2 + Q2
52
S = 16.97 VA
Power triangle Power factor

S (VA) The term cos ϕ is

referred to as the power
Q (VAr) factor. Power factor is
ϕ equal to 0 for purely
inductive load and equal
P (W) to 1 for purely resistive
load. In every other
case 0 < pf < 1.
S= P2 + Q2

Q = P * tan
(ϕ )
P
cos ϕ = In our case pf = 0.847 ( cos 32.1 )
S
53
 Parallel resistor-inductor circuits

Rule of parallel circuits Ohm’s Law

54
 AC capacitor circuits

Whereas resistors allow a flow of electrons

through them directly proportional to the
voltage drop, capacitors oppose changes in
voltage by drawing or supplying current as de
they charge or discharge to the new i=C
dt
voltage level. The flow of electrons
“through” a capacitor is directly proportional
to the rate of change of voltage across the
capacitor. 55
 The instantaneous power

Average power = 0

Capacitor does not dissipate

power as it reacts against
changes in voltage; it merely
absorbs and releases power,
alternately.
56
Since capacitors “conduct” current in proportion to the rate of
voltage change, they will pass more current for faster-
changing voltages (as they charge and discharge to the
same voltage peaks in less time), and less current for slower-
changing voltages. What this means is that reactance in
ohms for any capacitor is inversely proportional to the
frequency of the alternating current. 1
XC =
2π fC
The relationship of capacitive reactance to frequency is
exactly opposite from that of inductive reactance. Capacitive
reactance (Ω ) decreases with increasing AC frequency.
Conversely, inductive reactance (Ω ) increases with
increasing AC frequency.
Inductors oppose faster changing currents by producing
greater voltage drops; capacitors oppose faster changing
57
voltage drops by allowing greater currents.
 Series resistor-capacitor circuits

XC = 1 / 2π fC = 1 / (2* 3.142*50*100*10-6 ) = 31.83 Ω

Ztotal = R + XC XC
ϕ = arc tan
Ztotal = (5 Ω ∠ 0o) + (31.83 Ω ∠ -900) R
31.83
(5 Ω ) + (-j3.142 Ω ) ϕ = arc tan
5
Ztotal = 5 + 31.83 = 32.22 Ω ∠ 81.10
2 2 ϕ = 81.10
58
XC= 31.83 Ω ; R = 5 Ω ; Active power
P = I2 * R = 0.312 * 5
Z = 32.22 Ω
P = 0.481 W
ET 10
I= = = 0.31 A Reactive power
Z 32.22
Q = I2 * XC = 0.312 * 31.83
EC = I * XC = 0.31 * 31.83 Q = 3.06 VAr
EC = 9.87 V Apparent power
S = P2 + Q2
ER = I * R = 0.31 * 5 = 1.55 V 59
S = 3.1 VA
Power triangle Power factor
P (W)
The term cos ϕ is
ϕ referred to as the power
factor. Power factor is
Q (VAr)
equal to 0 for purely
S (VA) capacitive load and
equal to 1 for purely
resistive load. In every
other case 0 < pf < 1.
S= P2 + Q2

Q = P * tan
(ϕ )
P
cos ϕ = In our case pf = 0.155 ( cos 81.10 )
S
60
 Parallel resistor-capacitor circuits

Rule of parallel circuits Ohm’s Law

61
Resistance is essentially friction against the motion of
electrons. It is present in all conductors to some extent
(except superconductors!), most notably in resistors. When
alternating current goes through a resistance, a voltage drop
is produced that is in-phase with the current.
Resistance is mathematically symbolized by the letter “R”
and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω ).

Reactance is essentially inertia against the motion of

electrons. It is present anywhere electric or magnetic fields
are developed in proportion to applied voltage or current,
respectively; but most notably in capacitors and inductors.
When alternating current goes through a pure reactance, a
voltage drop is produced that is 90o out of phase with the
current. Reactance is mathematically symbolized by the
letter “X” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω ).
62
Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and all
forms of opposition to electron flow, including both
resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits, and in
all components.
When alternating current goes through an impedance, a
voltage drop is produced that is somewhere between 0o and
90o out of phase with the current. Impedance is
mathematically symbolized by the letter “Z” and is measured
in the unit of ohms (Ω ), in complex form.
IR IL IC

R (Ω ) U jXL (Ω ) U -jXC (Ω ) U

U U
IR = IL = -j IC = jUω C63
R ωL
 Luminaire components

Technical lamps

Thermal radiators Discharge lamps

Low-pressure High-pressure
lamps lamps

Incandescent Mercury
Halogen lamps Fluorescent
lamps lamps
lamps

Compact
Low-voltage Metal halide
fluorescent lamps
halogen lamps lamps

Low-pressure
High-pressure
Light and light sources sodium lamps
sodium lamps
64
 Radiation Spectrum

Light represents only a small section of this whole spectrum

and are the only ray visible to the human eye.
Visual Spectrum

65
 Thermal radiators

Radiation Wave length

UV - C 100 - 280nm
UV – B 280 - 315nm Violet 380-436
UV – A 315 - 380nm Blue 436-495
Optical 380 - 780nm Green 495-566
radiation Yellow 566-589
IR – A 780nm - 1.4um Orange 589-627
IR – B 1.4 - 3um Red 627-780
IR – C 3um - 1 mm

66
 Incandescent lamps

Insulated contact for

Screw cap to secure
connection to the phase
lamp mechanically, also
serves as a contact
to the neutral conductor

Glass stem, with insulated

filament supports
The inside of the
lamp Filament, usually a
is either evacuated double coil of tungsten
or filled with inert gas wire
Clear, matt or colored
glass bulb. Parts of the
glass bulb can be provided
with a silver coating
67
to form a reflector
The incandescent lamp is a thermal radiator. The filament
wire begins to glow when it is heated to a sufficiently high
temperature by an electric current. As the temperature
increases the spectrum of the radiated light shifts towards
the shorter wavelength range – the red heat of the filament
shifts to the warm white light of the incandescent lamp.
Depending on lamp type and wattage the temperature of the
filament can reach up to 3000 K, in the case of halogen
lamps over 3000 K.
Lack of a suitable material (high melting point, low evaporation
rate) for the filament means that it is not possible to increase
the temperature further, which would increase the luminous
efficacy and produce a cool white luminous colour.

68
Nowadays practically only tungsten is used for the
manufacture of filament wires, because it only melts at a
temperature of 3653 K and has a low evaporation rate. The
tungsten is made into fine wires and is wound to make single
or double coiled filaments.

69
The filament is located inside a soft glass bulb, which is
relatively large in order to keep light loss, due to deposits of
evaporated tungsten (blackening), to a minimum. To prevent
the filament from oxidizing the outer envelope is evacuated for
low wattages and filled with nitrogen or a nitrogen-based inert
gas mixture for higher wattages. The inert gases predominantly
used are argon and krypton. The krypton permits a higher
operating temperature – and greater luminous efficacy. Due to
the fact that it is so expensive, krypton is only used in special
applications.
A characteristic feature of incandescent lamps is their low
colour temperature - the light they produce is warm in
comparison to daylight. The continuous colour spectrum of
the incandescent lamp provides excellent colour rendition.

70
Effect of over-voltage and under-voltage on relative
luminous flux Φ , luminous efficacy η , electrical power P
and lamp life t.

71
 Screw cap

Description Code

Edison Screw E27/27

Goliath Edison Screw E40/45

Small Edison Screw E14/23

Miniature Edison Screw E10/13

Lilliput Edison Screw E5/9

Bayonet Cap B22/25*26

Small bayonet cap B15/24*17

Miniature Centre Contact BA 9s/14

72
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low purchasing price Low efficacy
Excellent colour rendering Short life
No ballast or control gear required Needs regular attention
Immediate full light when switched on High running cost
Ease of dimming High heat output
Sparkle lighting effect can be created
Operates in any plane – universal
operating position

73
 Halogen lamps

Halogen lamps are high pressure, incandescent lamps that

contain halogen gases such as iodine and bromine that allow
filaments to work at higher temperatures and higher
efficiencies. Halogen lamps consist of a tungsten filament
inside a quartz envelope that is filled with halogen gas. In
halogen lamps, the quartz envelope is closer to the filament
than the glass used in conventional light bulbs. Heating the
filament to a high temperature causes the tungsten atoms to
evaporate and combine with the halogen gas. These heavier
molecules are then deposited back on the filament surface.
This recycling process increases the life of the tungsten
filament and enables the halogen lamp to produce more light
per units of energy. Consequently, halogen lamps are used in
a variety of applications, including automobile headlights.
74
For the Tungsten halogen cycle to work, the bulb has to be on
long enough to heat up completely and keep the glass at over
250 0C.

75
Compared with the conventional incandescent the halogen
lamp gives a whiter light – a result of its higher operating
temperature of 3000 to 3300 K; its luminous colour is still in
the warm white range. The luminous efficacy of halogen
lamps is well above that of conventional incandescent –
especially in the low-voltage range.

From left to right: tungsten

halogen lamp for nominal
voltage with E27 fixing and
enveloping capsule, with
bayonet fixing, with double-
ended fixing. Low-voltage
halogen lamp with axial
filament.
76
Like almost all conventional
incandescent lamps, halogen
lamps can be run on mains
voltage. They usually have
special caps, but some are
equipped with an E 27 screw
cap and an additional glass
envelope and can be used in
the same way as
conventional incandescent.

77
 Halogen lamp energy performance

10% visible light

20% heat loss due to gas charge
convection and diffusion
10% el. resistance of filament

60% infra red radiation

New technology enables

an improvement with
IRC infra red coating, a Warning
reflective layer which a FIRE RISK
part of IR radiation
direct back to the
filament. 78
 Halogen lamp luminous efficacy
Power Light Luminous Power Light Luminous
output efficacy output efficacy
W lm lm/W W lm lm/W

300 5000 16.7 20 (6V) 350 17.5

500 9500 19 20 (12V) 450 22.5

750 15000 20 50 (12V) 900 18.0

1000 21000 21 100(12V) 2150 21.5

1500 33000 22 250 (24V) 5750 23

2000 44000 22 300(240V) 5000 16.7

79
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Higher efficacy then conventional Transformer required for ELV
tungsten filament lamps lamps
Excellent colour rendering Low energy efficiency
Brighter, wither light Requires careful handling
Immediate full light when switched on High heat output

Can be dimmed
Longer life then conventional Operating positions of double
tungsten filament lamps up to 5000 h ended types is limited to
horizontal
Sparkle lighting effect can be created

80
 Discharge lamps

In contrast to incandescent lamps, light from discharge lamps

is not produced by heating a filament, but by exciting gases
or metal vapors. This is effected by applying voltage between
two electrodes located in a discharge tube filled with inert
gases or metal vapors. Through the voltage, current is
produced between the two electrodes. On their way through
the discharge tube, the electrons collide with gas atoms,
which are in turn excited to radiate light, when the electrons
are traveling at a sufficiently high speed. For every type of
gas there is a certain wavelength combination; radiation, i.e.
light, is produced from one or several narrow frequency
ranges.

81
If the speed of the electrons increases, the gas atoms are no
longer excited on collision, but ionized; the gas atom is
decomposed to create a free electron and a positively charged
ion. The number of electrically charged, effective particles in
the discharge tube is accordingly increased, giving rise to a
corresponding increase in radiation.
To ignite a discharge lamp there must be sufficient electron
current in the discharge tube. As the gas that is to be excited
is not ionized before ignition, these electrons must be made
available via a special starting device.
Once the discharge lamp has been ignited there is an
avalanche like ionization of the excited gases, which in turn
leads to a continuously increasing operating current, which
would increase and destroy the lamp in a relatively short time.
To prevent this from happening the operating current must be
controlled by means of a ballast.
82
 Low pressure discharge lamps
These lamps contain inert gases or a mixture of inert gas and
metal vapour at a pressure well below 1 bar. Due to the low
pressure inside the discharge tube there is hardly any
interaction between the gas molecules. The result is a pure
line spectrum.
The luminous efficacy of low-pressure discharge lamps is
mainly dependent on lamp volume. To attain adequate
luminous power the lamps must have large discharge tubes.

83
 Fluorescent lamps

The fluorescent lamp is a low-pressure discharge lamp using

mercury vapour. It has an elongated discharge tube with an
electrode at each end. The gas used to fill the tube
comprises inert gas (argon), which ignites easily and controls
the discharge, plus a small amount of mercury, the vapour of
which produces ultraviolet radiation when excited. The inner
surface of the discharge tube is coated with a fluorescent
substance that transforms the ultraviolet radiation produced
by the lamp into visible light by means of fluorescence.
To facilitate ignition of the fluorescent lamp the electrodes
usually take the form of wire filaments and are coated with
metallic oxide (emissive material) that promotes the flow of
electrons. The electrodes are preheated at the ignition stage,
the lamp ignites when the voltage is applied.
84
 Glowing starter

ballast

L N 85
There is a stream of electrons flowing between the electrodes
(1) at both ends of the fluorescent bulb. The electrons (2)
interact with mercury vapour atoms (3) floating inside the
bulb. The mercury electrons (4) become excited, and when
they return to an unexcited state they release photons (5) of
light in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. These ultraviolet
photons collide with the fluorescent phosphor coating (6) the
inside of the
bulb, and the
phosphor
converts UV
radiation into
visible light (7).
The phosphor
fluoresces to
produce light.
86
Different luminous colours can be achieved through the
combination of appropriate fluorescent materials. To achieve
different luminous, the substances are frequently combined,
which, when mixed together, produce white light.
Depending on the composition of the luminous substances, a
warm white, neutral white or daylight white colour is produced.

In contrast to point sources The diffuse light of the

(incandescent lamps) the
light from fluorescent sources
is radiated from a larger
surface area. The light is
predominantly diffuse,
making it more suitable for
the uniform illumination of
larger areas than for accent
lighting.
fluorescent lamp gives rise to
soft shadows. There are no
sparkling effects on glossy
surfaces.
Spatial forms and material
qualities are therefore not
emphasized.
87
A ballast is a device used to start a gas discharge lamp, and,
once the lamp is started, to limit the flow of electric current.
Gas discharge lamps are sometimes described as having
negative resistance and, as such, are unable to limit the flow
of current through themselves.
An electromagnetic lamp ballast uses electromagnetic
induction to provide the proper starting and operating
electrical condition to power a fluorescent lamp, neon lamp or
high intensity discharge (HID) lamp.
An electronic lamp ballast uses solid state electronics
circuitry. They are generally smaller, lighter, and more efficient
(and thus run cooler) than magnetic ballasts. El. ballasts
usually change the frequency of the power from the standard
mains frequency to 20,kHz or higher, substantially eliminating
the stroboscopic effect line frequency (50 or 60Hz) flicker
associated with fluorescent lighting and lamps actually operate
at about 9% higher efficiency above approximately 10KHz. 88
There are three starting methods available for electronic
ballasts

Instant Start
Starts lamps without heating the lamp end heaters at all using
a high voltage (around 600V). It is the most energy efficient
type, but gives the least number of starts from a lamp. This is
the best type for installations where lamps are not turned on
and off very often.

Rapid Start
Applies voltage and heats the filament simultaneously.
Provides superior lamp life and more cycle life, but uses
slightly more energy for lamp and heaters.

89
Programmed Start
More advanced version of rapid start. Applies filament power
first, then applies voltage to the lamps. Gives the best life and
most starts from lamps. This is the preferred type of ballast for
applications with very frequent power cycling such as vision
examination rooms and restrooms with a motion detector
switch.

Fluorescent lamps are usually tubular in shape, whereby the

length of the lamp is dependent on the wattage. U-shaped or
ring-shaped fluorescents are available for special applications.

90
As fluorescent technology has Lamp type Power Including
(Watts) ballast
advanced, the lamps have
600 x 38 mm 20 26
become smaller in diameter. The
38 mm lamp (known as a T12 600 x 26 mm 18 24
lamp) was superseded 20 years
ago by the 26 mm lamp (known as 550 x 16 mm 14 17
a T8 lamp), which required 10%
850 x 16 mm 21 24
less power to produce the same
light output. Phosphors have also 1200 x 38 mm 40 46
improved, with the latest version
of the triphosphor lamp producing 1200 x 26 mm 36 42
50% more light at the end of its life
1150 x 16 mm 28 31
than the cool white monophosphor
lamp it replaced. The light is also 1500 x 38 mm 65 74
of considerably better quality.
Most recently, new buildings are 1500 x 26 mm 58 67
installing 16mm lamps (known as
1450 x 16 mm 35 39
T5 lamps) which provide even
91
greater efficiency.
 Efficacy

Type Overall Overall

luminous efficacy luminous efficiency
(lm/W)
5-24 W compact 45-60 6.6%-8.8%
fluorescent

34 W fluorescent tube 50 7%
(T12)

32 W fluorescent tube 60 9%
(T8)

28 W fluorescent tube up to 93 up to 14%

(T5)

92
 Fluorescent lamp energy performance

75% heat
45%
38% heat

Fluorescent coating
conduction
Gas discharge

37% heat 30% IR

radiation

25% visible lights

60% UV radiation 23% visible
light
25% visible
2% visible light light

93
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low running cost Excessive switching shortens life
High efficacy Ballast required
Long life in normal use Can be dimmed but requires
special ballast and dimmer
Very good to excellent colour
rendering
Prompt start and restart and
quick run up to full light output
Universal operating position

94
 Compact fluorescent lamps
Compact fluorescent lamps do not function any differently
from conventional fluorescent lamps, but they do have a more
compact shape and consist of either one curved discharge
tube or the combination of several short ones.
Compact fluorescent lamps
basically have the same properties
as conventional fluorescents, that is
to say, above all, high luminous
efficacy and a long lamp life.
Their luminous efficiency is,
however, limited due to the
relatively small volume of the
discharge tube. The compact form
does offer a new set of qualities
and fields of application. 95
The starter and ballast functions are provided by an electronic
circuit integrated in the lamp. CFL were developed to replace
incandescent lamps. They offer significant savings and
increased service life. ( 15W against 75W for the same level
of brightness).
Some of these lamps have an additional cylindrical or
spherical glass bulb or cover to make them look more like
incandescent lamps. If these lamps are used in luminaires
designed to take incandescent lamps it should be noted that
the luminaire characteristics will be compromised by the
greater volume of the
lamp.

96
 In contrast to conventional
fluorescent lamps, in the case
of compact fluorescents both
ends of the discharge tube(s)
are mounted on a single cap.

Compact Four-pin plug-in Screw cap with

fluorescent lamps cap for integral ballast for
with two-pin plug-in operation on mains operation
cap and integral electronic
starting device control gear
97
Comparison of sizes of standard TC, TC-D TC-T and TC-L
compact fluorescent lamps.

98
Compact fluorescent lamps offer many advantages over
incandescent lighting, including 10 times longer life and 90%
less heat output. Today's technology enables CFLs to use up
to 75% less energy than a standard incandescent bulb and
last longer. This means that over the life of one CFL, you can
avoid replacing up to 13 incandescent bulbs. For example, a
13-watt CFL has the approximate lumen equivalence of a 60-
watt incandescent, saving 47 watts of energy.

W 5 9 13 18 26 40
Lm 210 600 860 1250 1800 3500
Lm/W 42 67 66 69 69 87.5

99
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low running cost Relatively high capital cost
Replacement for tungsten lamp When cold full light not obtain
immediately
5/6 times the efficacy of Excessive switching shortens life
equivalent tungsten lamps at 70
Lm/W
Average life 8000 to 12000 h
Good colour rendering with most Ballast required ( in some types
lamps build in)
Prompt start and restart
Four pin lamps can be dimmed Direct replacement might not be
with suitable ballast and dimmer possible to some luminaries
Sparkle lighting effect can be
created 100
Low-pressure sodium lamps ( SOX )

101
Present style LPS lamps are known as the SOX type
Temp: 260 0C
The construction of a typical SOX lamp Press: 0.7 Pa

Low-pressure sodium lamp with U-shaped discharge tube in a

dichroic glass bulb. The infrared radiation produced by the
lamp is reflected back into the discharge tube via the dichroic
coating on the glass, thereby cutting down the time required to
102
reach operating temperature.
Low-pressure sodium lamps are comparable to fluorescent
lamps in the way they are constructed and how they operate. In
this case sodium vapour is excited instead of mercury vapour.
At room temperature, sodium is solid and there is insufficient
vapour present for the lamp to be started at a practical
voltage. Filling the discharge tube with a mixture of 1% argon
in neon (1.5% for the 10W and 18W sizes) appreciably lowers
the starting voltage.
When a cold lamp is switched on, the control gear provides a
high voltage kick. This generates the required number of
charge carriers inside the discharge tube for the neon gas to
become conducting as evidenced by the neon red colour of
the light immediately after switch-on. The discharge generates
some heat and after a few minutes the sodium metal begins to
melt and vaporises, and as this gradually fills the tube the light
changes to the characteristic deep yellow colour, because
103
sodium is ionised in preference to neon and argon.
Whereas mercury vapour excited at low pressure produces
mainly ultraviolet radiation, which is transformed into light with
the aid of fluorescent substances, sodium vapour produces
light directly. Low-pressure sodium lamps therefore require no
luminous substances to be added. Moreover, the luminous
efficacy of these lamps is so high that the lamp volume
required is considerably smaller than is the case for
fluorescent lamps.

Comparison of sizes of low-

pressure sodium lamps (LST).

104
Run-up characteristic: lamp Available power range from
lumens Φ in relation to time 10 to 180 W
t.

The most striking feature of low-pressure sodium lamps is

their extraordinarily high luminous efficacy. As the low-
pressure sodium lamp has a very long lamp life, between
10000 18000 h, it is the most economically efficient light
source available, 183 up to 200 Lm / W .
105
 Spectrum
Low-pressure sodium vapour only produces light in two
spectral lines which are very close together; the light radiated
by the lamp is monochrome yellow.
The obvious disadvantage of
these lamps with regard to
the advantages mentioned
above is their exceptionally
poor colour rendering quality.
Low-pressure sodium lamps
have therefore been
replaced by high-pressure
sodium lamps to a great
extent, especially in their
main field of application:
street lighting. 106
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Very high efficacy High purchase cost
Very low running cost Pure colour rendering restrict
application
Long average life 5000 h Requires up to 6 minutes to run up
to full output
Delayed restart when hot on most
lamps

107
High-pressure mercury lamps

108
High-pressure mercury
lamps have a short
quartz glass discharge Electrodes are positioned at
tube that contains a both ends of the discharge tube.
mixture of inert gas In close proximity to one of the
(traces of Argon) and electrodes there is an additional
a few milligrams of auxiliary electrode for the
metallic Mercury. ignition of the lamp. 109
When the lamp is ignited, there is an initial luminous Argon
glow discharge from the auxiliary electrode which gradually
extends to the second main electrode after a sufficient
number of Mercury atoms have been ionized . When the gas
has been ionised in this way, there is an arc discharge
between the two main electrodes, which, at this point in time,
is the equivalent of a low-pressure discharge. Only when all
the mercury has been evaporated via the arc discharge and
the resulting heat has produced sufficient excess pressure,
roughly 200 – 400 kPa and temperature cca1600 degrees
Celsius, does high-pressure discharge take place and the
lamp produce full power.
Un

110
High-pressure mercury lamps have moderate luminous
efficacy and a very long lamp life.
The light produced by high-pressure mercury lamps is
bluish-white in colour due to the lack of the red spectral
range.
Colour rendering is poor, but remains constant throughout
the entire lamp life. A neutral white or warm white colour
appearance and improved colour rendering properties are
achieved by the addition of fluorescent materials.

111
The lamp emits all the visible spectrum of mercury and some
UV. The radiation from the inner tube is particularly
dangerous to eyes and skin, as such radiation includes lines
in the short wave UV and can cause severe eye and skin
burns, including conjunctivitis and skin damage. Prolonged
exposure to such radiation, may cause blindness and skin
cancer.

NEVER operate a Mercury vapor lamp, if the outer bulb is

broken.

112
Due to the integrated auxiliary electrode there is no need for
high-pressure mercury lamps to have an igniter, but they do
have to be run on a ballast. High-pressure mercury lamps
require a run up time of some minutes and a longer cooling
time before re-striking. There are no restrictions as to the
burning position.

Run-up
characteristic:
lamp lumens Φ
in relation to
time t.

113
 Self-ballasted mercury lamps

Self-ballasted
mercury lamps are
basically constructed
in the same way as
high-pressure
mercury lamps.
They have an additional filament in the outer glass bulb,
however, which is connected in series with the discharge
tube. The filament takes on the role of a current limiter,
making an external ballast unnecessary. The warm white
light produced by the filament complements the missing red
content in the mercury spectrum, which improves the colour
rendering. Self-ballasted mercury lamps usually contain
additional fluorescent material to enhance the luminous
114
colour and improve the luminous efficacy.
Self-ballasted mercury lamps have similar qualities to high-
pressure mercury lamps. Luminous efficacy and lamp life
rates are not so good. Since they require no igniter or
control gear and are produced with an E 27 cap, self-
ballasted mercury lamps can be used as incandescent
lamps.
The filament in self-ballasted
mercury lamps radiates light
immediately on ignition. After a
few minutes the incandescent
component diminishes and the
mercury vapour discharge
reaches full power.

Run-up characteristic:
lamp lumens Φ in relation
to time t. 115
Relative spectral distribution Se (λ ) of a self-ballasted
mercury lamp with the combination of the spectra produced
by the high-pressure mercury discharge and the filament.

116
 High pressure mercury

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low cost compared with sodium Poor colour rendering unless de
lamps luxe lamps are used
Long life 12000 h Light output fails with age,
reducing efficacy

117
Metal halide lamps

118
Metal halide lamps are a further development of mercury
lamps and are therefore similar to these with regard to
construction and function. Apart from mercury they also
contain a mixture of halides of metals such as sodium,
scandium, indium, and dysprosium. A metal halide lamp may
have a phosphor coating. In contrast to pure metals, halogen
compounds have the advantage that they melt at a
considerably lower temperature.

By adding metal halides, luminous efficacy is improved and,

above all, colour rendering enhanced. If the metal
combinations are correct then multi-line spectra can be
produced, similar to those of fluorescent lamps; by using
specific combinations it is possible to create a practically
continuous spectrum consisting of numerous of spectral lines.
Additional fluorescent substances to enhance colour rendering
are not necessary. 119
The mercury component primarily serves as an ignition aid
and to stabilize the discharge process; when the metal
halides have been evaporated via the initial mercury vapour
discharge, these metal vapours essentially produce light.
The presence of halogens inside the lamp bulb means that
auxiliary electrodes are not required as part of a starting
device. Metal halide lamps require external control gear.

3-6kV

120
To operate metal halide lamps both an igniter and a ballast
are required. They require a run-up time of some minutes and
a longer cooling time before restarting. Instant re-ignition is
possible in the case of some double-ended types, but special
igniters or an electronic ballast is necessary. As a rule metal
halide lamps cannot dimmed. The burning position is usually
restricted.

Metal halide lamps are

available in warm white,
neutral white and daylight
white, as single or double-
ended tubular lamps, as
elliptical lamps and as
reflector lamps.
Run-up characteristic:
121
lamp lumens Φ in relation to time t.
Standard metal halide lamps, single-ended (HIT) and
double-ended versions (HIT-DE), plus elliptical version (HIE)
and metal halide reflector lamp (HIPAR).

122
 Metal halide

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
High efficacy Long restrike time
Good colour rendering High cost compared with
standard mercury lamps
Long average life 6000 to 8000 h

123
High-pressure sodium lamps ( SON )

124
Similar to mercury lamps, the spectrum produced by sodium
lamps can also be extended by increasing the pressure. If the
pressure is sufficiently high the spectrum produced is
practically continuous with the resultant enhanced colour
rendering properties. Instead of the monochrome yellow light
produced by the low pressure sodium lamp, with the extremely
poor colour rendering properties, the light produced is
yellowish to warm white producing average to good colour
rendering. These high efficiency lights
produce a golden white color
and are used for interior
industrial applications, such
as in warehouses and
manufacturing, and for
security, street, and area
lighting, the most common
type of outdoor lighting. 125
The improvement in colour rendering is, however, at the cost
of luminous efficacy. High-pressure sodium lamps are
comparable to mercury lamps with regard to their
construction and function. They also have a small discharge
tube, which is in turn surrounded by a glass envelope.
Whereas the discharge tube in high-pressure mercury lamps
is made of quartz glass, the discharge tube in high-pressure
sodium lamps is made of alumina ceramic, since high-
pressure sodium vapours have an aggressive effect on
glass.
The lamps are filled with inert
gases and an amalgam of
mercury and sodium, such
that the rare gas and mercury
component serve to ignite the
lamp and stabilize the
discharge process. 126
High-pressure sodium lamps are run on a ballast and require
an ignition device. They require a run-up time of some
minutes and cooling time before re-starting. Instant re-ignition
is possible in the case of some double-ended types, but
special ignition devices or an electronic ballast is necessary.
As a rule there are no restrictions as to the burning position.

Run-up characteristic:
127
lamp lumens Φ in relation to time t.
High-pressure sodium lamps are available as clear glass
tubular lamps or with specially coated ellipsoidal bulbs.
They are also available as compact, double-ended linear
type lamps,
Standard high-pressure
sodium lamps, single ended
elliptical (HSE), tubular
(HST), and
double-ended tubular
(HST-DE).

128
 High-pressure sodium lamps

ADVANTAGES
Very low running cost
Very high efficacy
Very long average life up to 30000 h
Wide range of lamp outputs
Can operate on low temperature -40 0C
Universal operating position
DISADVANTAGES
High purchase cost
Pure colour rendering
Requires up to 6 minutes
to run up to full output
Delayed restart when hot
on most lamps

129
130
 Photometric terms and units

In lighting technology a number of technical terms and units

are used to describe the properties of light sources and the
effects that are produced.

131
 Luminous flux

Luminous flux describes the total amount of light emitted by

a light source or received by a surface

[φ ] = Lumen (lm)

132
 Luminous efficacy

Luminous efficacy describes the luminous flux of a lamp in

relation to its power consumption and is therefore expressed
in lumen per watt (lm/W). The maximum value theoretically
attainable when the total radiant power is transformed into
visible light is 683 lm/W. Luminous efficacy varies from light
source to light source, but always remains well below this
maximum value.

Φ lm
η = =
P W

133
 Quantity of light
The quantity of light, or luminous energy, is a product of the
luminous flux emitted multiplied by time; luminous energy is
generally expressed in klmh.

Q = Φ ∗ t (lmh)

134
 Luminous intensity
An ideal point-source lamp radiates luminous flux uniformly
into the space in all directions; its luminous intensity is the
same in all directions.
In practice, however, luminous flux is not distributed uniformly.
This results partly from the design of the light source, and
partly on the way the light is intentionally directed.
It makes sense, therefore, to have a way of presenting the
spatial distribution of luminous flux, i.e. the luminous intensity
distribution of the light source.
Luminous intensity Ι is
the luminous flux Φ
radiating in a given
direction per solid angle
Ω.
135
 luminous flux Φ lm
luminous intensity = ; Ι = = cd
spatial angle Ω sr

Luminous flux is power that is radiated from a source in all

directions (lm)
Luminous intensity is power that is radiated from a source in
specific direction (cd)

Typical values for luminous intensity

LED 0.005 cd
Candle 1 cd
100W incandescent bulb 150 cd
Automobile headlamp (high beam) 10000 cd
Lighthouse 300000 cd
136
Flash tube (peak value) 1000000 cd
The unit for measuring luminous intensity is candela (cd). The
candela is the primary basic unit in lighting technology from
which all others are derived. The candela was originally defined
by the luminous intensity of a standardized candle.
Later thorium powder at the temperature of the solidification of
platinum was de-fined as the standard; since 1979 the candela
has been defined by a source of radiation that radiates 1/683 W
per steradian at a frequency of 540 ·1012 Hz.

137
 A2
A1

Ι = 1 cd

r1
r2

Ω = A1/r12 = A2/ r22 (sr)

If a uniform point light source of 1 cd luminous intensity (Ι )

“about the intensity of a normal wax candle” is positioned at
the center of a sphere of 1 m radius, then every area of 1 m2
on the inside of that sphere will receive a luminous flux of 1 lm.
138
 Illuminance
Illuminance is the means of evaluating the density of luminous
flux. It indicates the amount of luminous flux from a light
source falling on a given area. Illuminance need not
necessarily be related to a real surface. It can be measured at
any point within a space. Illuminance can be determined
from the luminous intensity of the light source. Illuminance
decreases with the square of the distance from the light
source (inverse square law).

Φ lm
E= = = lx
2
A m

139
Horizontal illuminance Eh and vertical illuminnance Ev in
interior spaces.

Average illuminance Em is calculated from

the luminous flux Φ falling on the given
surface A.
E = Φ / A [ lm/m2 = lx ]
E = Ι ∗ Ω / A = I ∗ (A/r2)
E =/ ΙA / r2 [ cd/m2 ]
140
The illuminance of a surface The illuminance of a point

Ι γ
Φ` Φ
α r
h γ
Ev

Eh E

E` = Φ `/A E = Ι γ /r2
E` = Φ ∗cos α /A Eh = E∗cosγ = (Ι γ
E` = E∗cos α Ev /r )∗cosγ = (Ι γ
=2E∗sinγ
α is the angle between /r2)∗sinγ
illuminated surface and the EiN
Mean value Em = Σ N
i=1
plane perpendicular to light 141
 Light source Example:
Ι
I = 20000 cd
r H=8m
h γ
350

y x 300
250

illumination (lx)
200
150
100

Ι
50

Ι ∗ cos γ 0

Ey = Ex = 1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71

h2 2 angle
r
h h
cos γ = r=
r cos γ

Ι ∗ cos3 γ
Ex =
142
h2
 Inverse Square Law
If a source emits the same luminous flux in all directions, then
the luminous intensity is the same in each direction, but for
most sources, the flux emitted in each direction is not the
same.

The area has increased in

proportion to the square of
the distance from the light
source, and the illuminance
has changed inversely with
the square of the distance.

143
The illuminance at a point Ep
is calculated from the
luminous intensity Ι and the
distance a between the light
source and the given point.

Ep = Ι / a2

@ 00 170 cd / 1000 lm

If TLD 36W gives flux of

2350lm, then Ι = 0.17∗
2350 = 400 cd on 2 m
distance there would be
illuminance of E = Ι / a2 144
=
100lx
 Phot 1 ph = 10'000 lx

Typical illuminance values of Illuminance [ lx ]

Illumination of surgical table 20000 – 120000
Sunny summer day 60000 – 100000
Cloudy summer day 20000
Cloudy winter day 3000
Good illuminated work place 500 – 700
Pedestrian area 50 – 100
Street lighting 10
Full moon night 0.25
145
 Typical illuminance levels in interior spaces.

E (lx)
20 Minimum value in interior spaces, excluding
working areas
Illuminance level required for recognizing facial
features
200 Minimum illuminance for workplaces in continuous use

2 000 Maximum illuminance at standard workplaces

20 000 Illuminance level for special visual tasks
e.g. in operating theatres

146
 Recommended illuminance levels for various activities.
E (lx)
20–50 Paths and working areas outdoors
50–100 Orientation in short-stay spaces
100–200 Workrooms that are not in continuous use
200–500 Simple visual tasks
300–750 Visual tasks of average degree of difficulty
500–1000 Difficult visual tasks, e.g. office work
750–1000 Complicated visual tasks, e.g. precision assembly
work
1000–2000 Extremely complicated visual tasks,
e.g. inspection and control
> 2000 Additional lighting for difficult and complicated
tasks 147
 Light calculations
When planning a lighting installation it is necessary to perform
a series of calculations. In general, these refer to the average
illuminance required or exact illuminance levels in specific
parts of the space. It may also be of significance to calculate
the luminance of specific parts of the space, or different
lighting qualities, such as shadow formation and contrast
rendition, or the costs for a lighting installation.

148
 Lumen Method Calculations
The lumen method is used to acquire a rough estimation of
the dimensioning of a lighting installation; it allows the
designer to determine the number of luminaries required to
produce the defined illuminance on the working plane, or vice
versa, the illuminance on the working plane produced by a
given number of luminaries.
This method does not provide exact illuminance at specific
points in the space, which means that other methods must be
applied to calculate the uniformity of a lighting installation or
to determine illuminance levels at specific points.

149
The lumen method is based on the fact that the average
horizontal illuminance for a space of a given size can be
calculated from the overall luminous flux produced by the
luminaries installed, the light output ratio and the utilisation. In
general terms, it describes the portion of luminous flux emitted
by the light sources, which falls on the working plane after
interaction with luminaries and room surfaces.
The deciding factor in this calculation is the utilisation, which
is derived from the geometry of the space, the reflectance of
the room surfaces and the efficiency and the distribution
characteristics of the luminaries used.
To be able to calculate the appropriate utilance in each
individual case, there are tables available, which contain the
utilance of a standardised space with changing room
geometry, changing reflection factors and luminaries with a
variety of distribution characteristics. 150
The lumen method formula is easiest to appreciate in the
following form.
n × N × F × UF × LLF
E= (lux)
A

E = average illuminance over the horizontal working plane

n = number of lamps in each luminaire
N = number of luminaire
F = lighting design lumens per lamp, i.e. initial bare lamp
luminous flux (lm)
UF = utilisation factor for the horizontal working plane
LLF = light loss factor (maintenance factor)
151
A = area of the horizontal working plane
 Utilisation Factor
Utilisation factor (UF) is the proportion of the luminous flux
emitted by the lamps which reaches the working plane. It is a
measure of the effectiveness of the lighting scheme. Factors
that affect the value of UF are as follows:

(a) light output ratio of luminaire

(b) flux distribution of luminaire
(c) room proportions
(d) room reflectances
(e) spacing/mounting height ratio

152
Light output ratio of luminaire (LOR) takes into account for
the loss of light energy both inside and by transmission
through light fittings. It is given by the following expression.

Output of luminaire
LOR =
Output of lamp

Flux Fraction of Various Luminaires 153

 Light output ratio LOR: ratio of
the luminous flux emitted by a
luminair Φ Le under operating
conditions to the luminous flux
of the lamp Φ La .
Φ Le
LOR =
Φ La
Typical light Luminair Lamp type LOR
output ratios Louvered luminaire 30° T26 0.65–0.75
LOR for Louvered luminaire 40° T26 0.55–0.65
direct Louvered lumin. square TC 0.50–0.70
luminaries Downlight 30° TC 0.60–0.70
with various Downlight 40° TC 0.50–0.60
cut-off Downlight 30° A/QT 0.70–0.75
angles and Downlight 40° A/QT 0.60–0.70
154
lamp types.
 Flux Distribution of Luminaire
Direct ratio is the proportion of the total downward luminous
flux from a conventional installation of luminaires which has
directly incident on the working plane. It is used to assess the
flux distribution of luminaire. Since the intensity distribution
pattern of the light radiated from a luminaire in the lower
hemisphere will affect:
(a) the quantity of the downward flux falls directly on the
working plane and
(b) the quantity of flux available for reflection from the walls in
a given room,
Direct ratio depends on both the room proportions and the
luminaires. Direct ratio has a low value with a narrow room
(small room index) and a luminaire which emits most of its light
sideways, and on the contrary, a high value with a wide room
(large room index) and a luminaire which emits most of its light
downwards. 155
 Room Proportion

The room index RI describes the influence of the room

geometry on the utilisation factor. It is calculated from the
length and width of the room, and the height h above the
working plane under direct luminaries and height Hm above
the working plane under predominantly indirect luminaries.

L∗W
RI =
Hm ∗ ( L+W)

L = length of room
W = width of room
Hm = mounting height, i.e. the vertical distance between the
156
working plane and the luminaire.
 Room Reflectances

The room is considered to consist of three main surfaces:

(a) the ceiling cavity,
(b) the walls, and
(c) the floor cavity (or the horizontal working plane).
The effective reflectances of the above three surfaces affect
the quantity of reflected light received by the working plane.

157
The Utilisation factor (UF) can then be read off the table from
the column showing the corresponding room index and line
showing the appropriate combination of reflectance factors of
ceiling (ρ C), walls (ρ W) and floor (ρ F) or for greater
accuracy, calculated through interpolation.

158
 Utilisation factor UF for typical interior luminaries

narrow-beam
luminaries
(A 60,DIN 5040)

159
wide-beam
luminaries
(A 40, DIN 5040)

160
Indirect luminaries
(E 12, DIN 5040)

161
 Light Loss (maintenance factor) Factor
Light loss factor (LLF) is the ratio of the illuminance produced
by the lighting installation at the some specified time to the
illuminance produced by the same installation when new. It
allows for effects such as decrease in light output caused by
(a) the fall in lamp luminous flux with hours of use,
(b) the deposition of dirt on luminaire, and
(c) reflectances of room surfaces over time.

In fact, light loss factor is the product of three other factors:

LLF = LLMF x LMF x RSMF

LLMF = lamp lumen maintenance factor

LMF = luminaire maintenance factor
RSMF = room surface maintenance factor
162
Lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF) is the proportion of
the initial light output of a lamp produced after a set time to
those produced when new. It allows for the decline in lumen
output from a lamp with age. Its value can be determined in
two ways:
(a) by consulting a lamp manufacturer's catalog for a lumen
depreciation chart, and
(b) by dividing the maintained lumens by the initial lamps
lumens.

163
Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) is the proportion of the
initial light output from a luminaire after a set time to the initial
light output from a lamp after a set time. It constitutes the
greatest loss in light output and is mainly due to the
accumulation of atmospheric dirt on luminaire. Three factors
must be considered in its determination:
(a) the type of luminaire,
(b) atmospheric conditions, and
(c) maintenance interval.

Room surface maintenance factor (RSMF) is the proportion of

the illuminance provided by a lighting installation in a room
after a set time compared with that occurred when the room
was clean. It takes into account that dirt accumulates on room
surfaces and reduces surface reflectance..
164
Light loss factor LLF in relation to the degree of deterioration
in the space.

165
 The number of luminaries required to produce the
defined illuminance E (lx)

E×A
n×N=
F × UF × LLF

Should a lighting installation consist of several types of

luminaire of varying classification, e. g. wide-beam lighting
provided by louvered luminaries and a narrow-beam
component provided by down-lights for incandescent lamps,
then the illuminance has to be calculated separately for each
component and then added.
166
Spacing to Height ratio (SHR or S/Hm) is defined as the ratio
of the distance between adjacent luminaires (centre to centre),
to their height above the working plane. For a rectangular
arrangement of luminaires and by approximation,
A = total floor area
N = number of luminaires
Hm = mounting height

Under a regular array of luminaires the illuminance on the

working plane is not uniform. The closer spaced the luminaires
for a given mounting height, the higher the uniformity; or the
greater the mounting height for a given spacing, the greater the
uniformity.

167
If uniformity of illuminance is to be acceptable for general
lighting,
(a) SHR should not exceed maximum spacing to height
ratio (SHRMAX ) of the given luminaire as quoted by the
manufacturer, and
(b) geometric mean spacing to height ratio of the luminaire
layout should be within the range of nominal spacing to
height ratio (SHRNOM ) of the given luminaire as quoted by
the manufacturer, i.e.

168
There are computer software programs available for
calculating the utilisation factor. They not only calculate the
illuminance, but also locate the appropriate tables and can
handle the complex interpolation between the individual
tables or values contained in the tables, if required.

169
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