Writing the Title of Research

Writing the Title of Research

1. Write clearly.

2. Include the main concepts.

3. Write the variables being investigated. In case many

variables are being studied, choose terms that will
summarize these variables instead of spelling them
all out.
 Writing the Title of Research

4. For specificity,
a) Indicate relationships among variables: difference,
effect, association as the case may be;
b) Write the target population.

5. Use a maximum of 20 substantive words (function

words not included in the count).
 Writing the Title of Research

6. For brevity in the title, the following expressions

should be dropped: “An investigation of”, “A study
of”, “An inquiry into”, “A comparison of” , and the
like. All theses and dissertations are investigations.
Research Writing Process
 Title of the Research Paper
 Write clearly.

 Include the main concepts.

Research Writing Process
 Title of the Research Paper
 Write the variables being investigated. In case many
variables are being studied, choose terms that will
summarize these variables instead of spelling them all
out.

 Use a maximum of 20 substantive words (function words

not included in the count).
Research Writing Process
 Title of the Research Paper
 For brevity in the title, the following expressions should
be dropped:
 “An investigation of”,
 “A study of”,
 “An inquiry into”,
 “A comparison of” , and the like.
 All theses and dissertations are investigations.
Research Writing Process
 Title of the Research Paper
 Examples:
 A Study of the Kinetic Characteristics of
Natural Gas Hydrate
 Sensitivity Analysis of the Life-Cycle
Inventories of Electricity and Hydrogen as
Energy Vectors for the Philippine Automotive
Transport Sector
Introduction
 Based on the Oxford dictionary meaning:
 the systematic investigation into and study of materials,
sources, processes, etc., in order to establish facts and
reach new conclusions
Introduction
 Prefix re in research
 re – again:
 repeated search for sources of ideas

 re – concerning:
 about the search: nature, process, tools
My Personal View
Research
a noble purpose
consummates the search for truth
with passion and zeal

- Eliza Azucena Puertollano

My Personal View
 Search for truth: passion, perseverance, purpose

 Dissemination of non-trivial results of research

Research Writing Process
 Reading and Comprehension
 Scan the reading materials at least once to comprehend
the ideas embedded in the sources relevant to your
research plan

 Paraphrase these ideas you have imbibed using in-text

citations
Writing the Outline
 Writing the Outline

A. Functions of Outlines:
 Outlines
 show points that still need research;

 indicate items (topics) that have been over-researched;

 improve the thinking process;

 form basis of thesis or research report.

 Writing the Outline

B. Kinds of Outline:

1. Topic outline

2. Sentence outline
 contains more formal and complete thought units than the topic
outline
 Writing the Outline

C. Methods of Outlining:
1. Number – Letter Sequence 2. Decimal Pattern
Example: Example:
I. __________ 1. __________
A. __________ 1.1 __________
1. __________
a. __________ 1.2 __________
b. __________ 1.21 __________
2. __________
a. __________ 1.22 __________
b. __________ 2. ____________
c. __________
B. __________ 2.1 __________
1. __________ 2.2 __________
2. __________
II. __________
 Writing the Outline

D. Important Note on the Method:

Level I cannot exist without at least Level II; Level A
cannot exist without at least Level B, and so forth. There
should be at least two similar levels in an outline.

E. Table of Contents
 is a less detailed outline but contains highlights of the
thesis.
The Outline of a Research Paper

 Organizes the ideas relevant to the research

 Forms the basis of the Table of Contents of longer

papers (theses and dissertations)

 Inspires the logical sequence of ideas and

arrangement of headings and subheadings in the
body of the text
Research Writing Process
 The Outline
 Organizes the ideas from the relevant sources by means
of a detailed outline which can be modified according to
the goals of the research plan
Research Writing Process
 The Outline
 Forms the basis of the Table of Contents of longer
papers (theses and dissertations)

 Inspires the logical sequence of ideas and arrangement

of headings and subheadings in the body of the text
Writing the Definition
 Writing the Definition

 To define a term, place it into the next larger class or

category of similar objects.

 Then, add the special characteristics which make this

object different from the rest of the objects in that class.
Example:
Term: A computer......
Class: ..…is an electronic machine.....
Characteristics: ..…which stores, retrieves and
manipulates information.
 Writing the Definition

 Note: Avoid the temptation of using the term or a

variation of it in the definition.
 Example:
A computer is an electronic machine that
computes data.
Main Body or Text of the Report
Chapter I - The Introduction
Chapter I – The Introduction

1. The Background of the Study

– what leads the researcher to undertake the study.

2. The Research Problem and Sub-Problems

– anything in the universe that leads to a “better life” for
man.
Chapter I – The Introduction

2. The Research Problem and Sub-Problems (cont’d.)

Energizers:
 Difficulty spurts a need to explore.
 Out of an old problem, a new problem may evolve.
 A thinker is stimulated by what he reads.
 An individual group has the urge to achieve and contribute
something to society.
 An individual likes to exercise resourcefulness, ingenuity and
creativeness.
Note: Inventions are usually brought about because of
the inventor’s resourcefulness.
Chapter I – The Introduction

3. The Importance or Significance of the Study

 Who are the probable users of the research results?

 In what specific manner could the findings be used?

 Will it benefit society as a whole?

 Why should the problem be explored?

Chapter I – The Introduction

4. The Objectives or Hypotheses

Objectives
 are set goals or those that are sought in the study;
 serve as pointers in the development of the tool used in
gathering data;
 guide the organization of situations – in analysis of data or
discussion of results.
Hypothesis
 is a “hunch” that is to be tested in order that it be accepted
or rejected,
Chapter I – The Introduction

4. The Objectives or Hypotheses (cont’d.)

Objectives and Hypotheses should be
 specific
 clearly stated
 systematic in ordering situations
 short
 few
 highly relevant to the problem
Chapter I – The Introduction

5. The Limitations of the Study

 State why other aspects relevant to the study are

omitted.

 Describe unusual occurrences in the process of data

collection and others.

6. Definition of Terms
Quality of a Research Paper: Content

Introduction
 Overview/Background
Rationale of the decision to conduct research

 Statement of the Problem

Specific problem from which the research objectives are
derived

 Objectives (Main and Specific)

Planned activities to solve the research problem
Quality of a Research Paper: Content

Introduction (cont.)
Significance of the Study
Impact produced by virtue of the physical, intellectual and
health benefits to a community
Advancement of knowledge
Specific contribution to research

Scope and Limitations

Quality of a Research Paper:
Content

 Introduction
 Overview/Background
 Rationale of the decision to conduct research

 Statement of the Problem

 Specific problem from which the research objectives
are derived
Quality of a Research Paper:
Content

 Introduction (cont.)
 Objectives (Main and Specific)
 Planned activities to solve the research problem

 Significance of the Study

 Impact produced by virtue of the physical,
intellectual and health benefits to a community
 Advancement of knowledge
Quality of a Research Paper:
Content

 Introduction (cont.)
 Scope and Limitations
 State why other aspects relevant to the study are
omitted.

 Describe unusual occurrences in the process of data

collection and others.
Research Writing Process

 The Abstract
 Shortened form of the research paper using the
important words of the selection itself
 Should have the same style and essential content
of the original
 No attempt at originality; simply select the
important words and connect them into a
readable version of the original selection
Chapter II – The Review of
Related Literature
Chapter II – The Review of Related
Literature

Part 1 – General concepts, principles and theories

related to the study

Part 2 – Local studies done along the same line of

research

Part 3 – Foreign Studies

Chapter II – The Review of Related
Literature

Notes:
 The study is not a mere repetition of a
previous work or a replicate of a previous study.
 The important past works of others are not
overlooked.
 The study could be a verification of findings
of past researchers.
Quality of a Research Paper: Content

 Review of Related Literature

 Local and foreign sources
 Documentation vs. plagiarism
 Foundation of the discussions on theory & principles,
methodology, and results of research
Quality of a Research Paper: Content

 Theoretical Considerations
 Theory and principles applicable specifically to the
research problem
 Factors affecting design methods, fabrication, testing,
experimentation, computer simulations and other
relevant considerations.
THEORY AND THE REVIEW OF
RELATED LITERATURE
 I. Theory
A. Theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts),
definitions and propositions which presents a
systematic view of phenomena
1. to specify relations among variables, and
2. to explain and predict the phenomena.

B. Theory links the research topic to an available body of

knowledge.
II. Review of Related Literature
A. Types of Related Literature

1. Research Literature – published or unpublished reports of

actual research studies done previously.

2. Conceptual Literature – articles or books within the problem

area written by authorities giving their opinions, experiences,
theories or ideas of what is
a. good or bad,
b. desirable and undesirable.
II. Review of Related Literature
B. Functions

1. provides conceptual or theoretical frameworks of planned

research

2. provides the following information about past researches

related to the intended study:
a. research method used
b. population and sampling considered
c. Instruments used in data-gathering
d. findings and conclusions
II. Review of Related Literature
B. Sources of Literature for Fruitful Surveys

1. Theses and dissertations

2. Abstracts

3. Encyclopedias for general/specialized areas

4. Indexes (indices) to periodical literature and reference books

Quality of a Research Paper:
Content

 Theoretical Considerations
 General concepts, principles and theories related
to the study
 Local studies done along the same line of research
 The study is not a mere repetition of a previous
work or a replicate of a previous study.
Chapter III – The Methodology
or Procedure
Chapter III – The Methodology or
Procedure

 Experimental research involves an attempt to

control all essential factors save a single
variable.

 The variables are manipulated with a view to

determine and measure their effects on
specified experimental conditions.
Chapter III – The Methodology or
Procedure

 The stages in carrying out the experiments

should be described in sufficient detail so that
the entire procedure could be replicated by
another researcher who would wish to repeat
the experiment.

 The better the quality of the equipment, the

more accurate and reliable the results.
Quality of a Research Paper: Content

 Methodology
 Flowchart of the research process
 Specifications of materials and instrumentation
 Phases of types of research-project: prototypes or
experimentations or computer simulations or surveys or
interviews or a combination of types
 Methods of data evaluation: measures of central
tendency, dispersion and correlation, computer-aided
methods, and others
Quality of a Research Paper:
Content

 Methodology
 Flowchart of the research process

 Specifications of materials and instrumentation

Quality of a Research Paper:
Content
 Methodology
 Phases of types of research-project:
 prototypes
 experimentations
 computer simulations
 surveys
 interviews or a combination of types
Quality of a Research Paper:
Content
 Methodology
 The stages in carrying out the research phases
should be described in sufficient detail so that the
entire procedure could be replicated by another
researcher who would wish to repeat the
experiment.
Quality of a Research Paper:
Content
 Methodology
 Methods of data evaluation:
 measures of central tendency
 dispersion and correlation
 computer-aided methods
 others
Chapter IV – The Presentation
and Interpretation of Results
Chapter IV – The Presentation and
Interpretation of Results

 Experimental and control groups are usually

presented side by side in tables or graphs to
vividly present existing differences.

 Findings are interpreted in the light of results

found by other researchers.
Chapter IV – The Presentation and
Interpretation of Results

 Empirical observations may be used to explain

occurrences.

 Interpretations deduced from reviews of

literature and other research studies should
be properly documented.
Quality of a Research Paper: Content

 Discussion of Results
 Tables and figures for purposes of optimization
 Comparison of results with those from literature sources
Quality of a Research Paper:
Content

 Discussion of Results
 Tables and figures are presented for purposes of
optimization.
 Empirical observations may be used to explain
occurrences.
 Interpretations deduced from reviews of literature
and other research studies should be properly
documented.
Chapter V – Summary, Conclusions
and Recommendations
Chapter V – Summary, Conclusions
and Recommendations

 In the summary, no interpretation of results

should be made; however, emphasis should
be given to results that are “outstanding”.

 The goal of a researcher is to make general

statements that could be explained by the
data gathered.
Chapter V – Summary, Conclusions
and Recommendations

 Recommendations are meant to improve a

particular field of study, a situation or life in
general.

 Devoid of implications, the research is

meaningless.
Quality of a Research Paper: Content

OTHER SECTIONS:
Conclusions

Recommendations

List of References

Appendices
Quality of a Research Paper:
Content

 Discussion of Results
 Tables and figures are presented for purposes of
optimization.
 Empirical observations may be used to explain
occurrences.
 Interpretations deduced from reviews of literature
and other research studies should be properly
documented.
Quality of a Research Paper:
Content

 Conclusions, Recommendations
 No interpretation of results should be made;
however, emphasis should be given to results that
are “outstanding”.

 The goal of a researcher is to make general

statements that could be explained by the data
gathered.
 Systems of
Documentation
 1. NOTE-BIBLIOGRAPHY SYSTEM
(Humanities System)

preferred by writers in literature, history and the arts

PASSAGE: Gold is “as beautiful as ever but no cure for

what ails us.”1
 1. NOTE-BIBLIOGRAPHY SYSTEM
(Humanities System)

1.1 NOTE (at the bottom of the page)

1 Lora S. Collins, “An Assay of Gold.”

Across the Board, Jan. 5, 1982, 19

1.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY (at the end of the book or

report)
Collins, Lora S. “An Assay of Gold.” Across the
Board, Jan. 5, 1982, 19-20.
2. PARENTHETICAL REFERENCE
SYSTEM

used by researchers in the physical, natural and social

sciences.

NOTE: For the Engineering disciplines, no current general style

manual exists. Refer to the individual journal guidelines to
ensure acceptance of submissions to the relevant journals.
2. PARENTHETICAL REFERENCE
SYSTEM

2.1 AUTHOR – NUMBER SYSTEM

2.11 In-Text Citation: author-number style
Gold is “as beautiful….. us” (1:19).

2.12 Reference-List Entry:

1. Collins, Lara S. “An Assay of Gold”. Across
the Board, 5 Jan, 1982: 19-20.
2. PARENTHETICAL REFERENCE
SYSTEM

2.2 MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION(MLA)

2.21 In-Text Citation: author-page style
Gold is “as beautiful….. us” (Collins 19).

2.22 Works-Cited Entry:

Collins, Lara S. “An Assay of Gold”. Across the
Board 5 Jan, 1982: 19-20.
2. PARENTHETICAL REFERENCE
SYSTEM

2.3 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

(APA)
2.31 In-Text Citation: author-date style
Gold is “as beautiful….. us” (Collins, 1982).

2.32 Reference-List Entry:

Collins, L. S. (1982, January 5). An assay of
gold. Across the Board, p. 19-20.
2. PARENTHETICAL REFERENCE
SYSTEM

2.4 CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (CMS)

2.41 In-Text Citation: author-date style
Gold is “as beautiful….. us” (Collins 1982, 19).

2.42 Reference-List Entry:

Collins, Lara S. 1982. An assay of gold. Across the
Board, January 5.
2. PARENTHETICAL REFERENCE
SYSTEM

2.5 MIT GRAD. SCHOOL STYLE SHEET

2.51 In-Text Citation: author-date style as APA
Gold is “as beautiful….. us” (Collins, 1982).

2.52 Reference-List Entry:

Collins, L. S. (1982). An assay of gold. Across the
Board, 19-20.
2. PARENTHETICAL REFERENCE
SYSTEM

NOTE: Consult STYLE MANUALS FOR VARIOUS

PROFESSIONS AND DISCIPLINES and other
handbooks on documentation styles.
DOCUMENTATION for TECHNICAL PAPERS
from more than one JOURNAL or SOURCE
DOCUMENTATION for TECHNICAL PAPERS from more than
one JOURNAL or SOURCE

(T: In-Text Citation, R: Reference-List Entry)

 CMS
T: ..... especially water as it leaves the reaction front (Chan et
al. 1985, Di Blasi 1997).

R: Chan, W. C. R., M. Kelbon, and B. B. Krieger.

1985. Modeling and experimental verification
of physical and chemical processes during pyrolysis of
a large biomass particle. Fuel 64: 1505-1513.

Di Blasi, C. 1997. Modeling and simulation

of combustion process of charring and non-
charring solid fuels. Progress Energy
and Combustion Science 19: 71-104.
DOCUMENTATION for TECHNICAL PAPERS from more than
one JOURNAL or SOURCE

 APA
T: ... especially ......................... front (Chan et al., 1985,
Di Blasi, 1997).

R: Chan, W. C. R., Kelbon, M., & Krieger, B. B. (1985).

Modeling and experimental verification of physical and
chemical processes during pyrolysis of a large biomass
particle. Fuel, 64, 1505-1513.

Di Blasi, C. (1997). Modeling and simulation of

combustion process of charring and non-charring
solid fuels. Progress Energy and Combustion Science, 19,
71-104.
DOCUMENTATION for TECHNICAL PAPERS from more than
one JOURNAL or SOURCE

 MLA
T: ... especially ......................... front (Chan et al. 1505-
1513, Di Blasi 71-104).

R: Chan, W. C. R., M. Kelbon, and B. B. Krieger.

“Modeling and Experimental Verification of
Physical and Chemical Processes during Pyrolysis of a Large
Biomass Particle.” Fuel 64 (1985): 1505- 1513.

Di Blasi, C. “Modeling and Simulation of Combustion

Process of Charring and Non-Charring Solid Fuels.” Progress
Energy and Combustion Science 19 (1997): 71-
104.
DOCUMENTATION for TECHNICAL PAPERS from more than
one JOURNAL or SOURCE

 MIT-GS
T: see APA author-date style.

R: Chan, W. C. R., M. Kelbon, and B. B. Krieger (1985).

Modeling and experimental verification of physical
and chemical processes during pyrolysis of a large
biomass particle. Fuel, Volume 64, 1503-13.

Di Blasi, C. (1997). Modeling and simulation of

combustion process of charring and non-
charring solid fuels. Progress Energy and
Combustion Science, Volume 19, 71-104.
Paraphrase sans Plagiarism
 Paraphrase sans Plagiarism

 Plagiarism – is the use of another person’s ideas or

wording without giving appropriate credit. This
results from inaccurate or incomplete attribution of
material in its source. Ideas and the expression of
ideas are considered to belong to the individual who
first puts them forward.
 Paraphrase sans Plagiarism

 The versions of the original passage that follows

demonstrate adequate and inadequate paraphrasing.
 Original

I have said that science is impossible without faith. By

this I do not mean that the faith on which science depends
is religious in nature or involves the acceptance of any of
the dogmas of the ordinary religious creeds, yet without
faith that nature is subject to law there can be no science.
No amount of demonstration can ever prove that nature
is subject to law.1

1 Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (New York: Avon, 1967), 262-63.
 Plagiarism

 Science is impossible without faith that nature is

subject to law.
(Borrowed wording without quotation marks.)

 Faith makes science possible. This does not

mean that science rests on religious faith or the
acceptance of religious dogmas, but without faith
that nature functions according to laws, science
cannot exist.
(Imitated sentence structure.)
 Correct Paraphrase

 The belief that nature functions in accordance with

laws makes science possible.

 Science depends on faith, not religious faith, but the

faith that “nature is subject to law.”
 Quality of a Research Paper: Form & Style

 Grammatical Considerations:
 Subject/verb and pronoun/antecedent agreements
 Avoidance of shifts in construction
 Improvement of sentence/paragraph style
 Parallelisms
 Dangling and misplaced modifiers,
 Idiomatic expressions
 Useful transitions for coherence and variety
 Quality of a Research Paper: Form & Style

 Marking Punctuations:
 Review the correct use of commas, colons, semi-colons
and hyphens

 Choices of Words/Phrases:
 Avoid the following: jargons, clichés, double negatives;
and redundant, flowery, trite, colloquial, and slang
expressions
Research Writing Process

 Definitions
 To define a term, place it into the next larger class
or category of similar objects.

 Then, add the special characteristics which make

this object different from the rest of the objects in
that class.
Research Writing Process

 Definitions
Example:
Term: A computer......
Class: ..…is an electronic machine.....
Characteristics: ..…which stores, retrieves and
manipulates information.
Quality of a Research Paper:
Content
 Other Sections:
 List of References
 Consistent with a specific style sheet:
 CMS
 APA
 IEEE
 et cetera
 Appendices
Quality of a Research Paper: Form & Style
 Grammatical Considerations:
 Subject/verb and pronoun/antecedent agreements
 Avoidance of shifts in construction
 Improvement of sentence/paragraph style
 Parallelisms
 Dangling and misplaced modifiers,
 Idiomatic expressions
 Useful transitions for coherence and variety
Quality of a Research Paper: Form & Style
 Marking Punctuations:
 Review the correct use of commas, colons, semi-colons
and hyphens

 Choices of Words/Phrases:
 Avoid the following: jargons, clichés, double negatives;
and redundant, flowery, trite, colloquial, and slang
expressions
Ethical Responsibility
 Paraphrase sans Plagiarism
 use of another person’s ideas or wording without giving
appropriate credit

Note: Ideas and the expression of ideas are considered to

belong to the individual who first puts them forward.
Ethical Responsibility
 Paraphrase sans Plagiarism
 The versions of the original passage that follows
demonstrate adequate and inadequate paraphrasing
Ethical Responsibility
 Original
I have said that science is impossible without faith. By
this I do not mean that the faith on which science depends is
religious in nature or involves the acceptance of any of the
dogmas of the ordinary religious creeds, yet without faith
that nature is subject to law there can be no science. No
amount of demonstration can ever prove that nature is
subject to law.1

1 Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (New York: Avon, 1967),
262-63.
Ethical Responsibility
 Plagiarism
Science is impossible without faith that nature is subject to
law.
(Borrowed wording without quotation marks.)

Faith makes science possible. This does not mean that

science rests on religious faith or the acceptance of religious
dogmas, but without faith that nature functions according to
laws, science cannot exist.
(Imitated sentence structure.)
Ethical Responsibility
 Correct Paraphrase
The belief that nature functions in accordance with
laws makes science possible.

Science depends on faith, not religious faith, but the

faith that “nature is subject to law.”