SOIL: Make it Work for You!
We Study Soil Because It’s A(n)
Great integrator:
Medium of crop all parts of ecosystem Snapshot of
production geologic, climatic,
biological, and
human history
Producer and
absorber of Waste decomposer
gases
Medium for
plant
growth Source material for
construction,
medicine, art, etc.
Home to organisms
(plants, animals and
others) Filter of water
and wastes
Essential natural resource
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Forming Factors
Biota Parent Material
Topography Climate
(The first four factors over) Time
These five factors work together to create a unique soil profile made of layers called
horizons.
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
What is “Soil?”
Each discipline defines soil in a different way,
depending on how soil affects it.
“In an engineering sense, soil is the relatively loose
agglomerate of mineral and organic materials and
sediments found above the bedrock.”
• R.D. Holtz and W.D. Kovacs (1981)
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Physical Nutrient
Characteristics Characteristics (Soil
Soil Texture, Chemistry)
Consistency, & Chemical bonding
Structure pH
Soil Compaction
Cation Exchange
(Bulk Density) Capacity (CEC)
Soil Moisture
Nutrient Availability
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Physical Characteristics of Soil:
Texture: the mineral components
Consistency & Structure: How the
mineral components are put together
Bulk Density
Soil Moisture
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Texture:
The way the soil “feels” is called the soil texture.
Soil texture depends on the amount of each size of
mineral particles in the soil.
Sand, silt, and clay are names that describe the
size of individual mineral particles in the soil.
Sand are the largest particles and they fell “gritty”
Silt are medium sized, and they feel soft, silky or
“floury”
Clay are the smallest sized particles, and they feel
“sticky”
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Texture: Relative Size Comparison of Soil Particles
beachball
frisbee
dime
Silt Clay
(feels floury) (feels sticky)
(< 0.002 mm, USDA)
(0.05 - 0.002 mm, USDA)
Sand (< 0.002 mm, ISSS)
(0.02 - 0.002 mm, ISSS)
(feels gritty)
(2.00 - 0.05 mm, USDA)
(2.00 - 0.02 mm, ISSS)
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Texture Triangle
100 0
Triangle Key:
S = sand or sandy
Si = silt or silty
C C = clay
L = loam or loamy
SC SiC
CL SiCL
SCL
L SiL
SL
0 S LS Si 100
100 0
% Sand
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Effects of Soil Texture:
Soils are more cohesive when they have more fine particles
(Clays).
Soils are more loose when the have more coarse particles
(Sand).
Different combinations of coarse and fine contents produce
different soil textures.
A loam is a mixture of sand, silt and clay: sandy clay loam is
best in landscapes.
Many other inclusions, such as cobbles, boulders.
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Consistency
Describes the general organization of the soil.
Hold a moist sample between the thumb and
forefinger, and gently squeeze it until it falls apart.
The soil is classified by the following categories
• Loose: You have trouble picking out a single sample and the
structure falls apart before you handle it.
• Friable: The sample breaks with a small amount of pressure.
• Firm: The sample breaks when you apply a good amount of
pressure and dents your fingers before it breaks.
• Extremely Firm: The sample can't be crushed with your
fingers (you need a hammer!).
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Consistence
Loose* Friable
* Soils with “single grained” structure always have loose consistence.
Firm Extremely Firm
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Structure: the shape that the soil takes based on
its physical and chemical properties. Possible choices of
soil structure are:
With Structure: Without Structure
Granular SingleGrained
Blocky Massive
Platy
Prismatic
Columnar
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Structure:
With Structure: Without Structure
Single Grained:
• beach sand
Massive
• solid mass with no
shape
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Structure: with Structure
Granular Block
y
Columna
r
Prismati Platy
c
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Structure: without Structure
Single Grained Massive
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Bulk Density: a measure of soil compaction
Sample is
made of 1 cm. (so, there is 1 cubic
Solids and 1.33 gms. centimeter of soil)
Pore Spaces
To calculate Bulk Density:
Volume = 1 cm3 1.33
Bulk Density =
Weight = 1.33 gms 1
Weight of Soil Bulk Density = 1.33 gms / cm3
Bulk Density =
Volume of Soil
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Bulk Density & Compaction Zones
Depth Bulk Density
(grams / cm3
0 inches
1.43
Plow Layer
1.90
7 inches
8 inches 1.87 Compacted Zone
9 inches 1.84
10 inches
1.80
Uncompacted
1.60 subsoil
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Basic Soil Components
Pore Spaces: Soil Particles:
location of air Mineral and
and water Organic
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Moisture: some terms and concepts
Field Capacity: water that remains in soil
beyond the effects of gravity.
Permanent Wilting Percentage: amount of
water after the permanent wilting point is
reached.
Available Water: amount of water in the soil
between the field capacity and the permanent
wilting percentage.
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Relationship between soil texture and water
availability
4
Inches
of 3
Water
Per ft. 2
of Soil
1
Sand Sandy Silt Clay Clay
Loam Loam Loam
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil at Different Moisture Levels:
At Saturation At “Available Water
Water on soil
Pore Spaces are filled with Pore Space particle surface
water
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil at Different Moisture Levels:
At Permanent Wilt Compacted
No water remains Pore spaces are collapsed
attached to soil particles
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Compacted Zone
Impermeable Layer
H2O H2O
Non-
Compacted
Compacted
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Sand Over Clay
Impermeable Layer
H2O H2O
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Clay Over Sand
Perched Water Table
H2O H2O
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Sandwiches
Wet & Dry Layers
H2O H2O
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Salads
H2O Patchy Soil Moisture H2O
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Summary of Water Movement:
Rate depends on:
pore space (structure) and consitence
particle sizes (texture) and particle size distribution.
Changes in bulk density:
changeswater movement (e.g. compaction).
may result in perched water tables through creating
an impermeable layer.
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Surface Drainage (Run-Off)
Severity of slopes
Angle and length of slopes
Soil or surface type
Presence or absence of vegetation
Total surface area of drainage basin
Must include structural surface area
Structures modify soil saturation, contact
areas, and volume contact/unit area
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Controlling Surface Drainage
Divert run-off from adjacent Contoured beds and or terracing
sites Re-vegetation mats
Stabilize slopes with synthetic Organic vs. synthetics
materials, mulches or Run strips parallel to slope
vegetation
Soil modifications;
Break up straight line flows,
Replace high bulk density
slows velocity
soils
Construct sediment fences
Incorporate OM or
Line drainage channels with aggregates
coarse
Break up soil surface crusts
aggregates
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Altering Subsurface Drainage
Deep plowing (sub-soiling) can damage tree
roots where landscape is established, utilities,
impractical for small sites
Avoid abrupt changes in soil type
Incorporate OM or large quantities of
aggregates
Huge variety of drains
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Large Subsurface Drains Smaller Subsurface Drains
Concrete pipes Ceramic tiles, out moded
• Usually for heavy traffic Corrugated plastic pipe
or very large drains • Cheap, light, flexible
• Perforated - areas of collection of
• High handling and release
transportation costs • Non-perforated - transport areas
Large diameter - 12” to 24” Avoid clods contacting during
diameter metal culverts installation
• Preferred under vehicular • Cover on 3 to 4 sides with 3” to 4”
of aggregates
traffic
• Cover with back-fill, preferably
• Damaged ends hinder 12”+
linking Topsoil in non-roads, road
• Expensive bed material in traffic areas
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
French Drains
Old-fashioned, but very effective
Numerous variations;
With or without pipes
Covered or exposed
Often connected to the surface with water permeable
material
Essentially a trench filled with aggregates
Always slope to a lower elevation!
Very useful for draining contained planting sites
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Horizons:
Horizon “A” = topsoil Horizon “B” = transition
Specified by texture, OM zone
content, available nutrients and Constitutes much of the
drainage characteristics. exposed soil in areas where
Critical to landscape success. construction has occurred and
Should be removed prior to in some formerly cultivated
construction and stock piled on portions of Ohio
site Horizon “C” = true subsoil
• Incorporate 1/3 into sub-soils after
construction to create smoother Little or no soil development.
transition zone Often contains accumulated
• Sharp transition between topsoil soluble salts, lime, etc. beneath
and subsoil creates perched water
cultivated areas.
tables.
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Characterization and Sampling Options
Soil Pit Exposed Profile (road cut)
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Soil Chemistry
Chemical bonding
pH
Nutrient Availability
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
What is “chemistry?”
Elements: the simplest kind of matter. They cannot
be broken down into anything simpler.
Elements can exist alone. Nitrogen (N),
Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Oxygen (O), are
elements and they can be made to exist alone, but in
nature they seldom do.
Elements tend to combine with each other. These
are called “compounds.” When they combine, it’s
called a “chemical reaction.”
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
What is “chemistry?”
Chemistry is the study of the “how” and “why”
elements combine, and break apart, through
chemical reactions.
Soil Chemistry is simply studying how and why
compounds are formed and broken apart in the soil,
and how these chemical reactions affect plants.
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Chemistry Made Simple: The Atom
(+)
-
The Electron =
negative charge
The Nucleus = positive charge
Hydrogen
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Chemistry Made Simple: The Atom
(+)
-
The Nucleus = positive charge
Hydrogen
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
A Water Molecule
H2O
(+)
(+)
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
(+)
Oxygen
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
What happens when an atom has too many
electrons?
It
has a negative charge ( - )
These atoms are called: anions
What happens when an atom doesn’t have
enough electrons?
Ithas a positive charge (+)
These atoms are called: cations
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
What happens when an anion meets a
cation?
Anions have a negative charge (-):
Chlorine: Cl
-
Cations have a positive charge (+):
Sodium: Na
+
When they meet, they combine to become a
molecule, the simplest compound:
NaCl (sodium chloride = salt).
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Common soil cations and anions, their
chemical symbols and ionic forms
Cation Chemical Ionic Form Anion Chemical Ionic Form
Symbol
Hydrogen H H+
Symbol
Chloride Cl Cl-
Potassium K K+
Nitrate N NO3-
Sodium Na Na+
Magnesium Mg Mg++ Magnesium Mg H2PO4-
Calcium Ca Ca++
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
The Chemistry of Clay:
- - - - - - - - - -
-
- -
- Clay Particle -
-- -
--------
Clay particles carry negative charges
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
With Magnets In Soil
CLAY CLAY
Unlikes Attract
+ +
- - NH4+ K+
Ammonium Potasium
Likes Repel CLAY
- + +
-
NO
-
3
Nitrate
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
The Strange Properties of Water:
Water ionizes: it falls apart into ions.
H2O H+ + OH-
Called the self ionization of water.
Only a small amount.
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
What is pH?:
It’s simply a measure of the relative amount
of H+ ions
In the soil, it is driven by the ionization of
water: H2O H+ + OH-
We us pH to measure the acidity or the
alkalinity (basicity) of a solution (a soil
solution)
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Possible pH Ranges Under Natural Soil Conditions
Neutral
Acid Basic
Very Very
Strong Moderate Slight Slight Moderate Strong strong
strong
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Most desirable
Most agricultural soils
Extreme pH range for most mineral soils
apple: 5.0-6.5
spinach: 6.0-7.5
tomato: 5.5-7.5
cranberry:4.2-5.0
cucumber: 5.5-7.0
carrot: 5.5-7.0
white pine: 4.5-6.0
black walnut: 6.0-8.0
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Clay and organic particles have a negative charge
Soil reactions in neutral to high (alkaline) pH
conditions PO4-3
NO3-
Mg+2 H+ Ca+2
- - - - - Ca+2 NO3-
- -
-
- - -K+
Clay Particle -
- -
Al+3 - - - - -- - - K+
H+ Mg+2
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Clay and organic particles have a negative charge
Soil reactions in low (acid) pH conditions
PO4-3
NO3-
H+ H+ Al+3
- - - - - Al+3 NO3-
- -
- -
- -K+
Clay Particle -
- -
Al+3 - - - - -- - - K+
H+ Al+3
SOIL: Make it Work for You!
Physical and Chemical Characteristics of
Soil: what does it all mean to you?
Soil Texture and physical nature of the soil
Water availability:
soil texture
bulk density
Soil Chemistry:
Charged elements / molecules & soil particles
pH and nutrients
Pesticides
Goal: to stop or limit pest occurrence
Types:
Insecticides– kill insects
Herbicides – kill weeds
Fungicides – suppress or kill fungi
Benefits
Allow agricultural producers to improve the
quality, quantity, and diversity of our food
supply.
Used in timber, turf, horticulture, aquatic,
and structural pest control industries.
Homeowners and home gardeners often use
pesticides in their homes, yards, and on
pets.
What Happens after Application?
When pesticides are applied the goal is that they
will remain in the target area long enough to
control a specific pest and then degrade into
harmless compounds without contaminating the
environment.
Once applied, many pesticides are mobile in the
environment (air, soil, water).
This movement can be beneficial (moving
pesticide to target area, such as roots) but can also
reduce the effect on the target pest and injure
nontarget plants and animals.
Pathways of pesticide movement
Runoff
Chemical degradation
Volatilize (gas vapor)
Leaching and breakdown in soil
Leaching and degradation by microbes
Photo degradation (sun)
Factors influencing a pesticide’s fate
Properties of the pesticide
Conditions where & when applied
Application method
Properties of the pesticide
Vapor Pressure (volatility) – pesticides with
a high vp are more likely to change to a gas
and escape into the atmosphere.
Sorption – attraction to soil surfaces,
pesticides with higher sorption values have
reduced leaching
Properties of the pesticide
Water Solubility/dissolvability - more
soluble pesticides have lower sorption and
are more mobile in the environment as they
are leached or moved with runoff.
Persistence – the amount of time a pesticide
remains in the environment, measured by
half-life. Pesticides with longer half-lives
pose a greater threat to the environment.
Conditions where & when applied
To maximize pesticide effectiveness and
minimize negative environmental impacts,
the pesticide must be compatible with the
physical, chemical, and biological
conditions of the application site.
For pesticides use in crop or plant pest
control consider the following conditions:
Soil: physical and chemical properties
(texture, amount of organic matter, pH).
Conditions where & when applied
Geology – depth to water table (larger distances
give more soil to act as filter)
Surrounding water sources – nearby water is more
susceptible to contamination when pesticides are
applied to highly erodible soils, over-irrigated, or
rain-soaked soils. Managing crop residues and
maintaining grass waterways and filter strips help
to protect surface waters from sediment and
pesticide pollution.
Conditions where & when applied
Environmental conditions – heavy or sustained rainfall
or irrigation shortly after pesticide application can
increase runoff, leaching, and volatilization.
Soil temperatures (extremely high or low) can interfere
with pesticide performance. Pesticides generally
become more volatile in high temperatures and windy
weather.
Pesticides can be incorporated (disked in) or applied
directly into the soil to decrease the potential for drift
and volatilization.
Application method
The challenge for pesticide applicators is to
maximize the benefits of pesticides through sound
management while reducing environmental risks.
This includes:
Keeping current of the latest information.
Taking all necessary preventive measures,
including transportation, secure storage, proper
disposal of containers and rinsate, and spill
prevention. Furthermore, avoid sensitive areas
such as sinkholes, depressions, wells, surface
water, public institutions and private buildings.
Product labels
The pesticide label is a binding, legal
document. Compliance is required by state
and federal regulations.
Label directions must be carefully followed
– from purchase to container disposal.
High risk pesticides may only be purchased
and applied by certified persons.
Pesticide Use
Careful selection for a specific pest –
understand the pest, site, product, and
risks.
Careful and responsible use.
…shows a consideration for the environment.
….responsible stewardship
Acknowledgement: WQ-19
By B. Joern, B. Lohman, and F. Whitford
