3.0 Soil Physics

SOIL SCIENCE & GEOLOGY SOIL PHYSICS
SOIL PHYSICS
Jeam Catague
Overview
This chapter covers the introduction of soil science and discusses its importance to
other disciplines. This includes the principles of studying soil science - approaches,
divisions, and history.
Hence, this chapter will be divided into four (4) parts:

• Define soil
• Soil and its functions
• Soil science
• Historical background
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
• Evaluate soil constituents and how it influences the properties of soil; and
Time Allotment
This chapter can be completed within 5 hours.
Lesson 1:
Soil Constituents
After the soil is formed and influenced by environmental factors, the soil may
develop different qualities from each other that result in different classifications and
management required. These variations of soil qualities can be reflected in their
composition (soil constituent).
In this lesson, we’ll introduce the basics of soil components and their different
properties.
Three Phase System

The soil is a three-phase system composed of solid (organic and mineral matter),
liquid and gas phases. With some exceptions, all three occur in soil side by side (hence,
phase). In observation, the soil is solid. However, the liquid and air part can also be
present and has equal importance in terms of their role in the support for biological
growth within and on the soil surface. Thus, the soil is referred to as a three-phase system.
It consists of solid particles, liquid, and air.
Three phases of soil
Soil Physical Components

In the physical components of the soil, soil solid can be divided into two: (1) organic
matter and (2) mineral matter. The distribution of the four physical components (organic
and mineral matter, liquid, and gas) varies among soils. In an ideal loam soil, the
inorganic or mineral matter constitutes 45%; organic matter, 5%; air and water, 25% each.
The amount of each of the four major components of soil depends on the quantity
of vegetation, soil compaction, and water present in the soil. Good, healthy soil has
sufficient air, water, minerals, and organic material to promote and sustain plant life.
Soil Solids
The solid phase is the permanent component of the soil and the one, which gives
substance to the whole. It consists of soil solid particles (which form the solid matrix) that
vary in chemical and mineralogical composition as well as in size, shape, and orientation.
It is the mixture of mineral and organic particles that occupy about 50 percent of the soil's
volume.
Organic Matter
The organic material fraction of soil solids, called humus, represents decomposed
or partly decomposed organic residues and is made up of microorganisms (dead and
alive), and dead animals and plants in varying stages of decay. Humus improves soil
structure, providing plants with water and minerals. It also provides nutrients for plant
use, enhances soil aeration, increases water-holding capacity, and serves as a source of
carbon and energy for microorganisms.
Composition of soil
Soil organic matter represents only a small portion of the soil phase ranging from
2-5% in most mineral soils. However, it is an extremely complex material that probably
contains the rest of the organic compounds found in nature plus several which are unique
in soils.
Mineral Matter
The mineral matter, sometimes called the inorganic material of soil, is composed
of rock, slowly broken down into smaller particles that vary in size. Soil particles that are
0.1 to 2 mm in diameter are sand. Soil particles between 0.002 and 0.1 mm are called silt,
and even smaller particles, less than 0.002 mm in diameter, are called clay. Some soils
have no dominant particle size, containing a mixture of sand, silt, and humus; these soils
are called loams.
Mineral matter provides anchorage and supplies nutrients to plants. The clay
particles are the most reactive of the inorganic soil solids. There are different kinds of
clays whose reactivity varies with chemical composition and mineral structure.
Pore Space
The remaining soil volume, about 50 percent, is pore space, composed of pores of
varying shapes and sizes. Normally, a pore forms a continuous space like interconnected
large and small channels throughout the soil. Within the pores, the liquid and the gas
phases reside and move.
Soil Air
The gas phase of soil consists of soil air and it occupies the pore spaces of the soil.
Soil air composition is similar to the atmospheric air, (except that CO2 is about 10 times
higher in the soil). The soil air is composed of 78.6% N2, 20% O2, 0.50% CO2, and other
traces. In poorly aerated conditions, chemical reduction takes place producing gasses like
methane, H2S, and N2O. The density of soil air fluctuates from 1.0 to 1.5 kg/m3.
Soil air has lower oxygen content because it is consumed by plants and
microorganisms by providing O2 for the respiration of plant roots. The CO2 is typically
higher in concentration because of the release of CO2 from organic matter decomposition,
plant root respiration, and reaction products of carbonate materials.
Soil Solution
The liquid phase of soil consists of soil water that contains dissolved ions (K +,
NH4+, Ca+2, Mg+2, NO3-, Cl- etc.) and dissolved substances (gases and salts). It is also
called the soil solution or aqueous solution. Soil water also occupies the pore spaces of the
soil, and when soil pores are filled with water, the soil is in saturated moisture conditions
(like paddy soils). Under unsaturated moisture conditions, the water occurs as a thin film
along the particles’ surfaces.
Soil water is essential to the plant cells for their metabolic functions and contains
nutrients for growing plants. It also serves as a weathering agent of minerals to constantly
renew the nutrient supply in the soil. The dissolved CO2 in soil water forms carbonic acid
which is a solvent that can release nutrients from minerals.
The comparison between atmospheric air and soil air
Lunar Soil
Based on lunar rock samples returned to Earth during the Apollo missions,
scientists know that the moon's soil, or regolith, contains about 40 to 45 percent oxygen
by weight. This makes oxygen the most abundant element on the moon's surface. Data
from this location also reveal water in concentrations of 100 to 412 parts per million -
roughly equivalent to a 12-ounce bottle of water – trapped in a cubic meter of soil spread
across the lunar surface. Samples of the lunar soil also contain low levels of organic matter
in the form of amino acids. Certain amino acids are the building blocks of proteins,
essential molecules used by life to build structures like hair and skin and to regulate
chemical reactions.
Interpretation
• If the liquid ratio increases in soil composition, water will occupy air spaces in soil
pores which makes the soil saturated/flooded with water.
• If the gas ratio increases in soil composition that means, there’s not enough water
to be occupied on soil pores which makes the soil dry and barren.
• If the mineral ratio increases in soil composition, it indicates that the soil has less
organic matter content and has low fertility.
• If the organic ratio occupies a large space in the soil composition, it indicates that
the soil is composed mainly of decaying plant material. It is soft, smelly, and
unstable for engineering use.
Soil Mass-Volume Parameters

For review and to calculate the percentage of each soil component here is the basic
formula that you need to memorize:
• Mt = Ms + Mw + Ma (0). The mass total is equal to the mass of solids, and the
mass of water.
• Mw = Mt - Ms. Mass of water is equal to the mass total subtracted by the mass
of solids.
• Vt = Vs + Vw + Va. The volume total is equal to the volume of solids, the volume
of water, and the volume of gas.
• Vp = Vw + Va. The volume of pores is equal to the volume of water and the
volume of gas.
• Vt = Vs + Vp. Volume total is equal to the volume of solids and volume of pores.
The mass-volume relationship of soil

Lesson 2:
Soil Texture
The most evident component of soils is the solid particles that characteristically
vary greatly in size. Bypassing a soil through a series of sieves with different-sized holes,
the proportions by weight of the different components, and size classes of particles can be
determined by the soil texture.
Soil texture refers to the relative amounts or percentage of sized soil particles or
the fineness/coarseness of the mineral particles in the soil. Soil texture depends on the
relative amounts of sand, silt, and clay (also known as the primary minerals). It also refers
to the size range of particles in the soil, i.e., whether the particles of which a particular soil
is composed are mainly large, small, or of some intermediate size or range of sizes.
In this lesson, we’ll discuss the different soil texture classes and subclasses and
their relation to soil fertility.
Soil Separates
The solid phase of soils consists of discrete units, called primary soil particles.
These particles vary widely in size, shape, and composition. Thus, soils are classified
according to the particle-size distribution or texture of the mineral solids since these
distributions change little by little over time.
Diameters of individual soil particles range over six orders of magnitude, from
boulders (1 m) to submicroscopic clays (<10−6 μm). Scientists group these particles into
soil separates according to several classification systems (ISSS & USDA). The size ranges
for these separates can be grouped into three main classes, namely sands, silts, and clays.
Sand
Sand particles are smaller than 2 mm but larger than 0.05 mm. Sand grains consist
of a single mineral, usually quartz (SiO2) or other primary silicate minerals. Because of
the dominance of quartz, the sand separately generally contains few plant nutrients. Some
sands are composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), magnesium carbonate (MgCO3), or
other soluble compounds. The smaller sand particles may have coatings of clay on their
surfaces to attain some activity, but the action is due to the clay and not to the sand.
Because sands are inactive, their chief function in the soil is to serve as a framework
around which the active part of the soil is associated.
Silt
Silt particles are smaller than 0.05 mm but larger than 0.002 mm in diameter.
Although similar to sand in shape and mineral composition, individual silt particles are
so small as to be invisible to the unaided eye. Rather than feeling gritty when rubbed
between the fingers, silt feels smooth or silky, like flour. Silty soil is easily washed away
by flowing water in a process called piping.
Clay
Clay particles are tiny flakes or flat platelets that are smaller than 0.002 mm. They,
therefore, have very large specific surface areas, giving them a tremendous capacity to
absorb water and other substances. This large adsorptive surface causes clay particles to
cohere in a hard mass after drying. When wet, clay is sticky and can be easily molded
(exhibits high plasticity). The shrink-swell behavior, plasticity, soil strength, and chemical
adsorption depend on the kind of clay present as well as the amount.
For a comparison of these three:

SAND SILT CLAY
Size Most sands are Silt is much smaller in Clay particles are the
relatively large size than sand grains smallest.
particle sizes. but larger than clay
particles.
Visibility Individual grains are Individual grains can Individual particles

visible to the naked be seen through a can be seen through
eye. simple/compound an electron
microscope. microscope.
Texture It feels gritty when It feels smooth, silky, It feels sticky.

rubbed between the or floury. When dry, if
thumb and fingers. pressed between the
thumb and finger, will
retain the imprint.
Structure Individual grains are Does not aggregate. It coheres in a hard

single-grained mass after drying.
Shapes Sands are mostly Similar to sand but Tiny flakes or flat
rounded or angular, smaller. platelets.
depending on the
degree of weathering
and abrasion
undergone.
Consistency Do not stick together Does not exhibit much It is sticky and can be
into a coherent mass, stickiness or plasticity easily molded
and loose. (malleability). (exhibits high
plasticity).
Porosity Mostly have large Much more numerous Convoluted pores that
pores in-between. pores than clay can retain water
Water Low water-holding Can retain water. Have a tremendous

retention capacity (water capacity to absorb and
retention). retain water.
Nutrients Low nutrients are Rapid enough to Have rapid release of

released released for plant release significant plant nutrients.
uptake. amounts of plant
nutrients.
Drainage Drain rapidly and Capable of draining Have slow drainage

and aeration promote entry of air water and has high and don't promote
(aeration) into the susceptibility to entry of air into the
soil. erosion. soil.
Specific Low specific surface Have large surface Have a very large
surface area area. areas. surface area.
Soil Texture Determination

The soil texture carries both qualitative and quantitative connotations.
Qualitatively, it represents the “feel” of the soil material whether coarse, gritty, or fine and
smooth. In a quantitative sense, however, the term soil texture denotes the measured
distribution of particle sizes or the proportions of the various size ranges of particles that
occur in a given soil. As such soil texture is a permanent, natural attribute of the soil and
the one most often used to characterize its physical makeup.
Soil is never composed of only one soil separate. Usually, at least small quantities
of the majority of the separate are present. After determining the relative percentage
amounts (or ratio) of sand, silt, and clay by using different soil texture analysis methods.
Before the soil texture determination, separate the fine earth fraction from rock
fragments by sieving the soil sample in 2mm mesh. If the soil is predominated by sand,
conduct the sieve method to determine the volume of coarse, medium, fine, and very fine
sand.
Sieve Method
The sieve method is focused on the percentage of sand in the soil sample. It is also
used to determine the texture subclass of the soil, and the percentage of coarse, medium,
fine, and very fine sand. The process of determining is also called mechanical analysis.
In this analysis, soil sieves are arranged from the largest screen size on the top,
followed by decreasing the screen size to the bottom. From that, the dried soil sample will
be passed through the different sieves and shaken. The remaining soil from the sieve will
be weighed and computed to determine the percentage of it to the total weight of the soil.
However, this method is not that reliable for determining silt and clay percentage.
Feel and Roll Method

Field textural class determination is done by the feel and roll method. This method
is done by placing enough moist soil samples between your thumb and forefinger and
squeezing them. When the samples feel gritty - it is generally sandy soil, floury - silty soil,
and if sticky - clay soil. Accuracy depends largely on experience, beginning with soils of
known texture to “calibrate” your fingers.
Hydrometer Method
The most common method for determining soil texture is the hydrometer method.
In this method, the soil particles are needed to be dispersed and then agitated. Hence, soil
requires to undergo chemical treatment which depends on the kind of cementing agent
responsible for aggregation. For example, hydrogen peroxide is needed to dissolve the
organic matter in the soil. Dilute HCl is needed for CaCO3, sodium dithionite in iron and
aluminum oxides, and if the suspension is flocculated, it needs Calgon or sodium
hexametaphosphate. After dispersion, the amount of each particle group (sand, silt, clay)
is determined by using a hydrometer.
This method is based upon the differential rate of settling of soil particles in water
based on Stoke’s law. This law states that: “settling velocity (v) for spherical particles, in
a viscous medium is equal to the square of the diameter (D) of the particles multiplied by
a constant (K)”.
V =KD2
Size limit between sand and silt – 0.02 mm

V (0.02) = 6900 x (0.02)2 = 2.76 mm/min
Size limit between silt and clay – 0.002 mm
V (0.002) = 6900 x (0.002)2 = 0.028 mm/min
The hydrometer measures the number of particles in suspension. And according

to the principle of Stokes law, which states that particles will fall out of suspension at
different rates over time, based on particle size, is used to determine the amount of each
particle size present in the soil.
In a suspension of soil and water, sand grains are the first soil particles that settle
down to the graduated cylinder which falls down after 20 seconds. Thus, this means
during this period silt and clay are the only particles that remain on the suspension which
will be calculated by the hydrometer. This will be followed by silt which will fall down
after 2 hours. Thus, this means, only clay will be the one that remains on the suspension.
During this period, the reading of the hydrometer only indicates the clay. However,
hydrometer reading is also influenced by the temperature of the fluid. Thus, it requires
correction/adjustments. Use the following formula for calculations and identification of
soil texture:
1. Correct the hydrometer reading (HR) using the correction factor (CF)
CF = 0.36 (T - 19.4)
2. The C.F. value is added algebraically to the hydrometer reading to give the
Corrected Hydrometer Reading (CHR).
CHR = HR + CF
3. Compute % sand, silt, and clay based on the CHR.
% Clay = (CHR after 2 hours/Weight of Soil Sample) × 100
% Silt = [(CHR at 40 sec. - CHR at 2 hours) /weight of Soil Sample) × 100
% Sand = 100% - (% Clay + %Silt)
Soil Texture Triangle

The soil texture triangle gives names associated with various combinations of
sand, silt, and clay. It also shows the different texture classes. For more specific use, sandy
texture classes are used.
Soil texture triangle
Soil Texture Classes and Subclasses

After determining the ratio of soil separation from a soil sample, the next step in a
textural classification is to identify their texture class and subclass through the use of the
soil texture triangle.
The texture classes are determined through the proportion of the different
separates present and which are named according to the separates which contribute most
to their characteristics. For example, a soil sample is called sandy soil because it consists
of a large proportion of sand in comparison to silt and clay. Meanwhile, subclasses are
only used for three texture classes with a large proportion of sand: sandy loam, loamy
sand, and sandy soil. The subclasses determined the ratio of coarse, medium, fine, and
very fine sands on the sand ratio of coarse-textured soils.
Texture classes can also be grouped into three broad groups (also called texture
groups): sandy soil, loamy soil, and clay soil. These groups are determined by the
coarseness and fineness of the soil.
General soil texture groups

SOIL MATERIAL TEXTURE GROUP TEXTURE CLASSES
Sandy soil materials Coarse textured Sands (coarse sand, sand, fine sand,
very fine sand); loamy sands
Loamy soil materials Moderately coarse Coarse sandy loam, sandy loam, fine
textured sandy loam
Medium textured Very fine sandy loam, loam, silt

loam, silt
Moderately fine- Clay loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay

textured loam
Clayey soil materials Fine-textured Sandy clay, silty clay, clay
Coarse Textured Soil

The coarse-textured soils (also known as sandy soils) predominantly consist of
sand. These soils are single-grained and loose. The individual grains can be seen readily
or felt. Squeezed, when dry in the hand, it will fall apart when the pressure is released.
Squeezed, when moist, it will form a cast but will crumble when touched.
The coarse-textured soils are also referred to as “light soils” which means that it
takes less effort to plow and cultivate in contrast to the fine-textured soils. Here are the
soil textural class and subclass that are recognized as coarse-textured:
• Sand (S). Sandy soil has more than 85 percent sand.
o Coarse sand. Sand consists of very coarse and coarse sand.
o Sand (common). Sand has very coarse, coarse, and medium sand.
o Fine sand. Sand that has more fine sand, and fine sand.
o Very fine sand. Sand has a large portion of very fine sand.
• Loamy sands (LS). Loamy sand soils are sands that have similar characteristics
to loam.
o Loamy coarse sand. It is loamy sand that has very coarse and coarse sand.
o Loamy sand (common). It is loamy sand that has very coarse, coarse, and
medium sand.
o Loamy fine sand. It is loamy sand that has more fine sand.
o Loamy very fine sand. It is loamy sand that has very fine sand.
Medium-Textured Soils
The medium-textured soils (also known as loamy soils) have a relatively even
mixture of sand, silt, and clay. However, the clay content is less than 20% (The
characteristic properties of clay are more pronounced than those of sand.) A loam is
mellow with a somewhat gritty feel, yet fairly smooth and highly plastic. Squeezed when
moist, it will form a cast that can be handled quite freely without breaking.
• Loam (L). Loam soil has a moderate rate of sand, silt, and clay. It often has 7 to
less than 27 percent clay, 28 to less than 50 percent silt, and 52 percent or less
sand. When rubbed between the thumb and fingers, the approximately equal
influence of sand, silt, and clay is felt.
o Sandy loam (SL). Sandy loams are gritty loams due to the presence of more
sand.
▪ Coarse sandy loam. It is a sandy loam that has very coarse and coarse
sand.
▪ Sandy loam (common). It is a sandy loam that has very coarse, coarse,
and medium sand.
▪ Fine sandy loam. It is a sandy loam that has more fine sand.
▪ Very fine sandy loam. It is a sandy loam that has very fine sand.
o Silt loam (SiL). Silt loam is smooth loam due to the presence of more silt.
• Silt (Si). Silt soil is smooth in texture and consists of 80 percent or more silt
and less than 12 percent clay.
• Clay loam (CL). Clay loam material has a loamy texture with 27 to 40 percent
clay and more than 20 to 45 percent sand.
o Sandy clay loam (SCL). It is gritty clay loam/that has more sand.
o Silty clay loam (SiCL). It is smooth clay loam/that has more silt.
Fine-Textured Soils
Fine-textured soils (also known as clay soils) usually form very hard lumps or clods
when dry and are quite plastic. These soils are sticky in some areas and not sticky in
others. It is usually very sticky when wet. When the moist soil is pinched between the
thumb and fingers it will form a long, flexible “ribbon.” Clay soil leaves a “slick” surface
on the thumb and fingers when rubbed together with a long stroke and a firm pressure.
The clay tends to hold the thumb and fingers together with its stickiness.
Fine-textured soils are also referred to as “heavy soils” which means that it takes
more effort to plow and cultivate in contrast to coarse-textured soils.
• Clay (C). Clay soil has 40 percent or more clay, 45 percent or less sand, and less
than 40 percent silt.
o Sandy Clay (SC). Clay that has more sand.
o Silty Clay (SiC). Clay has more silt.
Coarse Fragments
The coarse fragments (often called stones or rock fragments) consist of gravel,
cobbles, boulders, and others greater than 2 mm in diameter which may affect the
behavior of soil. In these groups, individual fragments in this size range are properly
referred to as “pebbles” and they can be classified based on their sizes and shape.
• Boulders are the largest coarse fragments in the soil. It usually has > 600 mm
long/diameter.
• Stones. All coarse fragments that are 380–600 mm long or 250–600 mm in
diameter is considered stones (or medium stones).
• Cobbles and flagstones are both usually used in landscaping horticulture but
have different shapes. Cobbles are rounded and size ranges from 76 - 250mm,
while flagstones are 150–380 mm long.
• Both gravel and channers are the smallest coarse fragments. The only
differences between the two are their shape. Gravel is rounded or is rounded or
subrounded fragments while channers are thin, flat, and 2–150 mm long.
The term gravel as used here indicates the collection of pebbles on a soil horizon
and does not imply a geological formation. Gravels' upper size limit of 76 mm (3 inches).
This coincides with the upper limit used by many engineers for grain-size distribution
computations.
The 5-mm and 20-mm divisions for the separation of fine, medium, and coarse
gravel coincide with the sizes of openings in the number 4 screen (4.76-mm) and the ¾-
inch (19.05-mm) screen used in engineering.
Terms for coarse fragments

SHAPE AND SIZE NOUN ADJECTIVE
Nonflat 2-76 mm diameter Gravel Gravelly

fragments
(spherical or 2-5 mm diameter Fine gravel Fine gravelly
cubelike)
5-20 mm diameter Medium gravel Medium gravelly
20–76 mm diameter Coarse gravel Coarse gravelly
76–250 mm diameter Cobbles Cobbly
250–600 mm diameter Stone Stony
> 600 mm diameter Boulder Bouldery
Flat 2-150 mm long Channers Channery

fragments
150-380 mm long Flagstones Flaggy
380-600 mm long Stones Stony
> 600 mm long Boulders Bouldery
Coarse fragments are separated into two groups: rock and pararock fragments. The
words “rock” and “pararock” are used here in a broad sense and connote more than just
natural fragments of geologic material. Thus, rock and pararock fragments may be
discrete, cemented pieces of bedrock, bedrock-like material, durinodes, concretions,
nodules, or pedogenic horizons (e.g., petrocalcic fragments).
• Rock fragments are fragments of geologic or pedogenic material with a strongly
cemented or more cemented rupture-resistance class that ranges from 2 mm
and larger. These fragments in the soil can greatly influence use and
management. It is important to not only consider the total amount of rock

fragments, but also the proportions of the various size classes (gravel, cobbles,
stones, etc.). A soil with 10 percent stones is quite different from one with 10
percent gravel.
• Pararock fragments are pieces of geologic or pedogenic material with an
extremely weakly cemented to moderately cemented rupture-resistance class.
The prefix ‘para’ is added to any rock fragments that are weakly cemented.
In soil texture classifications, coarse fragments are added in textural class based
on volume percentages. The following rules are used:
• Less than 15 percent. No texture modifier terms are used with soils having less
than 15 percent gravel, paragravel, cobbles, paracobbles, channers,
parachanners, flagstones, or paraflagstones.
• 15 to less than 35 percent. The adjectival term of the dominant kind of fragment
is used as a modifier of the texture class, e.g., gravelly loam, parachannery silt
loam, cobbly sandy loam.
• 35 to less than 60 percent. The adjectival term of the dominant kind of rock
fragment is used with the word “very” as a modifier of the texture class, e.g.,
very gravelly loam, very parachannery silt loam, very cobbly loamy sand.
• 60 to less than 90 percent. The adjectival term of the dominant kind of rock
fragment is used with the word “extremely” as a modifier of the texture class,
e.g., extremely gravelly loam, extremely parachannery silt loam, extremely
cobbly sandy loam.
• 90 percent or more. No texture modifier terms are used. If there is too little fine
earth to determine the texture class (less than about 10 percent, by volume) a
term in lieu of texture (i.e., gravel, cobbles, stones, boulders, channers,
flagstones, or their pararock fragment equivalents) are used as appropriate.
The adjective used for rock fragments

TOTAL ROCK GRAVEL (GR), COBBLES (CB), STONES (ST), AND BOULDERS
FRAGMENTS (BY) (SUBSTITUTE CHANNERS FOR GRAVEL AND
(VOL. %) FLAGSTONES FOR COBBLES, WHERE APPLICABLE)
If GR ≥ 1.5 CB + If CB ≥ 1.5 ST If ST ≥ 1.5 BY If ST < 1.5 BY

2 ST + 2.5 BY + 2 BY
≥ 15 < 35 Gravelly Cobbly Stony Bouldery
≥ 35 < 60 Very gravelly Very cobbly Very stony Very bouldery
≥ 60 < 90 Extremely Extremely Extremely Extremely

gravelly cobbly stone bouldery
≥ 90 Gravel Cobbles Stones Boulders
The volume occupied by individual pieces of rock can be seen, and their aggregate
volume percentage can be calculated. For some purposes, volume percentage must be
converted to weight percentage.
Importance
Texture can be beneficial or detrimental, depending on the degree to which it has
developed. Up to a certain point, an increase in the amount of clay in the subsoils is
desirable. It can increase the amount of water and nutrients stored in that zone. By
slightly reducing the rate of water movement through the soil, it will reduce the rate of
nutrient loss through leaching. Here is the importance of soil texture:
Specific Surface Area

Soil texture can indicate the specific surface area of the soil particle. When particle
size decreases, specific surface area and related properties increase greatly. Fine colloidal
clay has about 10,000 times as much surface area as the same weight of medium-sized
sand. Through this, other properties are influenced by the soil texture, including those
mentioned below.
Infiltration of Water
Rain falling on coarse-textured soil penetrates almost immediately almost none is
lost as runoff. In contrast, the rate of infiltration of water into heavy soil is very slow, and
because runoff is greater, therefore, heavy soils as a group are more susceptible to erosion
problems than light soils.
The rate of movement of water through soil varies, inversely with soil texture. For
example, the tiny interstitial spaces offer considerable resistance to the mass movement
of water.
Soil textural class and its surface area

CLASSIFICATION DIAMETER (mm) NO. OF PARTICLES SURFACE AREA
PER GRAM (mm2/g)
ISSS USDA
Coarse gravel 15.000 -
Fine gravel 2.000 2.00 – 90 11.3
1.00
Coarse sand 0.200 1.00 – 722 22.4
0.50
Medium sand - 0.50 – 5,777 45.4
0.25
Fine sand 0.020 0.25 – 46,213 90.7
0.10
Very fine sand -- 0.10 – 722,074 226.9
0.05
Silt 0.002 0.05 – 5,776,674 453.7
0.002
Clay <0.002 <0.002 50,260,853,860 11,342.5
Water Holding Capacity

Soil texture can indicate the amount of water that is drained and retained in the
soil. Water is retained in soils as thin films on the surfaces of soil particles. These tiny
pools of water are held in the smaller soil pores. The greater the surface area, the greater
the soil’s capacity for holding water films.
Water is retained by soils as films that coat the surface of the particles and
therefore coarser soils. In areas where there are pronounced dry seasons, plants are most
favorably situated when their roots are in contact with a body of fine textured soil because
fine soils absorb so much water during each rainy season that the supply is exhausted
relatively late in the ensuring dry seasons as compared to sandy soil. Thus, with the same
amount of rainfall, a sandy loam was observed to keep the corn from wilting for 20 days,
whereas on medium and fine sands corn wilted for 12 days after a rainstorm.
Nutrient Retention
Soil texture can indicate the number of nutrients that are leached and retrained in
the soil. Both gases and dissolved chemicals are attracted to and absorbed by mineral
particle surfaces. The greater the surface area, the greater the soil’s capacity to retain
nutrients and other chemicals.
Many of the nutrient ions which plants must extract from soils are held or absorbed
by the colloids. This fraction of soil may be likened to a vast storehouse in which mineral
nutrients accumulate and from which they may be drawn as the plant needs the nutrients.
For this reason, it is a general rule that the finer the texture of soil the greater its fertility.
Sandy soils especially in regions of high rainfall are usually leached and infertile and
become productive only with the constant application of considerable amounts of
fertilizer.
Weathered Minerals
Soil texture can determine the rate of plant nutrients that can be released in soil
from weathered minerals. Weathering takes place at the surface of mineral particles,
releasing constituent elements into the soil solution. The greater the surface area, the
greater the rate of release of plant nutrients from weatherable minerals.
Plasticity and Stickiness

Soil texture can indicate the plasticity and stickiness of the soil. The surfaces of
mineral particles often carry both negative and some positive electromagnetic charges so
that particle surfaces and the water films between them tend to attract each other. The
greater the surface area, the greater the propensity for soil particles to stick together in a
coherent mass, or as discrete aggregates.
Microbial Population
Soil texture can determine the microbial population of the soil. Microorganisms
tend to grow on and colonize particle surfaces. For this and other reasons, microbial
reactions in soils are greatly affected by the specific surface area.
Soil Aeration
In moderately coarse soils, as well as in heavy soils that are well aggregated, there
exist large interstitial spaces which facilitate the diffusion of gases. As a result, the carbon
dioxide produced in soil by the respiration of soil organisms and roots is able to escape
rather easily, and the oxygen used up in this function diffuses into the soil with
corresponding ease. In heavy soils, especially those which are poorly aggregated, the
deficiency of oxygen and the toxicity of the excess carbon dioxide become limiting factors
for many plants. Under the Philippines' farming conditions in rice culture, this is not
much of a problem because rice can transport oxygen from the atmosphere via the leaves
for its root's normal respiration.
Quite obviously, the influences of fine texture upon aeration are shown by the high
water-holding capacity of heavy soils as pointed out in the discussion on the effect of soil
texture on WHC), for the more water a soil holds, the less space is available for gases in
the interstices. In moist climates especially during the rainy season poorly aerated soils
(poorly drained) are often associated with unhealthy conditions for upland crops.
Lesson 3:
Soil Structure
Soil structure describes the spatial arrangement of particles to complex
aggregations, pores, and channels. Sand, silt, clay, and organic particles become
aggregated together due to various forces and at different scales to form distinct structural
units called peds or aggregates.
Although aggregate and ped can be used synonymously, the term ped is most
commonly used to describe the large-scale structure evident when observing soil profiles.
Structural peds should not be confused with clods—the compressed, cohesive chunks of
soil that can form artificially when wet soil is plowed or excavated.
In this lesson, we’ll discuss the arrangement of soil particles and the spatial
between them.
Formation
The mechanism of structure formation has not been fully understood at the present
time and it has been agreed that the process is a complex one. However, for the formation
of aggregates, the soil particles should coagulate and flocculate and should be held
together into clusters by some binding, cementing, or gluing material.
Cementing/binding agents include the following:

• Colloidal organic matter
• Lime (oxides or carbonates of Ca and Mg)
• Microbial gums
• Oxides of Fe and Al
• Fine clay
• Plant roots
Polysaccharides and polyuronides which are synthesized by microorganisms and

secreted, for example by earthworms, are very effective binding materials. There are
several theories concerning the process of aggregate formation.
Flocculation
Aggregation begins with the flocculation of clay particles into microscopic clumps
or floccules. If two clay platelets come close enough to each other, cations compressed in
a layer between them will attract the negative charges on both platelets, thus serving as
bridges to hold the platelets together. These processes lead to the formation of a small
“stack” of parallel clay platelets, termed a clay domain. Other types of clay domains are
more random in orientation, resembling a house of cards. These form when the positive
charges on the edges of the clay platelets attract the negative charges on the planar
surfaces. Multivalent cations (especially Ca2+, Fe2+, and Al3+) are also complex with
hydrophobic organic molecules, allowing them to bind to clay surfaces.
Dispersion
When certain cations (especially Na+, but to a lesser degree K+ and even Mg2+) with
less flocculating ability than Ca2+ or Al3+ are prominent, the attractive forces are not able
to overcome the natural repulsion of one negatively charged clay platelet by another. This
is called dispersion where the clay platelets cannot approach close enough to flocculate,
so remain dispersed and cause the soil to become gel-like, impervious to water and air,
and very undesirable from the standpoint of plant growth. This dispersed condition is
most dramatically stimulated by Na+ ions and is most common in soils of arid and
semiarid areas.
Forms and Shape

Many types or shapes of peds occur in soils, often within different horizons of a
particular soil profile. Some soils may exhibit a single-grained structural condition while
some soils occur as large, cohesive masses of material and are described as exhibiting a
massive structural condition. However, most soils exhibit some type of aggregation and
are composed of peds that can be characterized by their shape (or type), size, and
distinctness (or grade).
Unstructured soil has no formal organization or structure. This includes single-

grained structural conditions and massive structural conditions.
Massive
The massive structural conditions are united as or form a whole. There is no
arrangement of soil particles into "real" structural units. This soil condition usually has
topsoil structures that have been destroyed by excessive tillage and compaction and are
often found deep in the soil that are cemented together. Another type of massive structure
is called massive-rock-controlled fabric.
Single-grained
Single-grained structural condition is non-coherent/unaggregated. This condition
occurs in soils with a high percentage of sand or gravels consisting of loose, individual
particles that lack cohesion where the individual soil particles show no tendency to cling
together.
The different forms and shapes of soil aggregate
Spheroidal
The spheroidal structure is formed where there is abundant organic matter and
biological activity, so it is commonly found on the surface horizon. A stable granular
structure with plenty of organic matter is usually favorable for plant growth because of
macropores between and within peds providing for a good seedbed, and easy passage of
water, air, and roots. Such a condition is associated with good "tilth."
There are two types of spheroidal structures: granular and crumb.

• Granular is commonly the size and looks of "grape nuts." They are bounded by
curved or very irregular faces that are not casts of adjoining peds.
• Crumb is a very porous spheroidal structure.
Block-like
The block-like peds are polyhedral in shape and approximately the same size in all
dimensions (equidimensional). Ped faces accommodate each other, fitting together like
puzzle pieces with intervening planar pores. The blocky structure forms mainly by
repeated shrinking and swelling of clay as it dries and wets. Blocky structure occurs in
several kinds of horizons but is most prevalent in subsurface horizons.
Typically, blocky structural units can be grouped into two: subangular blocky and
angular blocky.
• The angular blocky structure is a polyhedral aggregate with faces intersect at
relatively sharp angles
• The subangular blocky structure is a polyhedral aggregate with faces that are a
mixture of rounded and plane faces and the corners are mostly rounded.
Prism-like
The prism-like are bounded by flat or rounded vertical faces that vary in size. They
are also often associated with swelling types of clay. There are two types of prism-like
aggregate: columnar and prismatic
In prismatic, peds are vertically oriented, pillar-shaped, with accommodation

between adjoining faces. Most common in clayey soils with strong shrinking and swelling,
and older soils with well-developed horizons of clay accumulation. This structure
commonly occurs in subsurface horizons in arid and semiarid regions and, when well
developed, provides a very striking feature of the profile.
While in columnar, peds are also long in the vertical dimension but with a
rounded, cap-like top. Most common in clayey horizons which are high in exchangeable
sodium (Btn). The rounded top may be produced by upward swelling of the peds and/or
by dispersion of clay as the sodic soil is wetted from above.
Plate-like
Platy or plate-like peds are thin, flat, and horizontally layered. It commonly occurs
in E horizons, light-colored eluviated horizons that underlie some A horizons. It may also
be inherited from soil parent materials, especially those laid down by water or ice. In some
cases, the compaction of clayey soils by heavy machinery can create a platy structure.
Wedge
The wedge soil structure has a shape similar to the block-like that of a football. It
is elliptical interlocking lenses that terminate in acute angles, bounded by slickensides.
Similar to block-like aggregates, these are horizontal-oriented, found in subsurface
horizons, and occur in soils that have a high number of shrink-swell clays.
Lenticular
The lenticulars are similar to the platy-structure. It is a horizontally layered
structure that is recognized for plates that are thickest in the middle and thin toward the
edges. The units are overlapping lenses parallel to the soil surface. The lenticular structure
is commonly associated with moist soils, texture classes high in silt or very fine sand (e.g.,
silt loam), and a high potential for frost action.
Worm Cast
Earthworms move soil particles about, often ingesting them and forming them into
pellets or casts which become aggregates.
Hierarchical Organization
Most large peds are composed and can be broken into smaller aggregates. The
networks of pores within and between the aggregates constitute a key aspect of soil
structure.
• Macroaggregates. Surface horizons are usually characterized by a roundish
granular structure that exhibits a hierarchy in which relatively large
macroaggregates (0.25–5 mm in diameter). Macroaggregates are composed of
many micro-aggregates bound together mainly by a kind of sticky network formed
from fungal hyphae and fine roots.
• Macroaggregates are composed of smaller aggregates called micro-aggregates
(2–250 μm). A micro-aggregate consists mainly of fine sand grains and smaller
clumps of silt grains, clay, and organic debris bound together by root hairs, fungal
hyphae, and microbial gums.
• Submicroaggregate. A very small submicro-aggregate consisting of fine silt
particles encrusted with organic debris and tiny bits of plant and microbial debris
(called particulate organic matter) encrusted with even smaller packets of clay,
humus, and Fe or Al oxides.
• Primary particles. Clusters of parallel and random clay platelets interact with
Fe or Al oxides and organic polymers at the smallest scale. These organoclay
clusters or domains bind to the surfaces of humus particles and the smallest of
mineral grains.
Factors of Aggregation
Climate
Climate factors, especially rainfall and temperature affect soil structure formation.
Hydration and dehydration influence structural development by causing a physical
shifting of the particles within the soil mass. Some types of colloidal clay tend to expand
as they become hydrated and contract as the moisture disappears. Furthermore, in the
moist state, a certain degree of freedom of movement is afforded to the particles allowing
them to orient or group themselves and, under the influence of cohesion they are capable
of forming compact aggregates. The particles are drawn into closer contact as the thin
water films covering their surfaces disappear during dehydration. The fact that
rehydration of the colloids will occur at a slower rate than dehydration leads to a certain
degree of stability in the aggregates.
Vegetation
Aside from the obvious effect of plant residues on aggregate formation, the physical
activity of roots assists the process of aggregate formation by mechanically disturbing the
arrangement of the soil particles. Expansion of growing rootlets exerts a compressing
effect on the loose aggregates surrounding them. Furthermore, the massive network of
roots characterizing many plant species will create countless lines of weakness
throughout a volume of soil which occurs in an otherwise non-aggregate or massive state.
The roots permeate the soil with relative thoroughness and, by their wedge-like action,
fragment the soil mass. By this means, granulation may be assisted or initiated.
Microbial Activity
In the presence of decomposable organic matter, microorganisms become active
metabolically. In their synthesizing processes, they do not replicate their cells but also
secrete substances as by-products of metabolism. These substances have the capacity to
cement individual particles into bigger particles. It should be pointed out that
microorganisms will metabolize their own products so that the aggregates will remain
intact until such time when the cementing agents are metabolized by other
microorganisms. This means that there is a continual synthesis and degradation of
binding materials useful in aggregation and the degree of stability is enhanced in the
presence of metabolizable organic substances. There is evidence that shows that even
when filamentous microorganisms such as fungi and streptomyces are involved their
contribution to soil aggregates formation is via the production of mucilaginous
substances and not through the physical entanglement by the mycelia.
Wetting and Drying

Subjecting puddled soil to repeated cycles of wetting and drying can create in it a
decided granular structure.
Importance
Soil structure is an unstable property of the soil. It deteriorates with poor soil and
crop management. Structure modifies the influence of texture in regards to moisture and
air relationships, availability of plant nutrients, the action of microorganisms, and
ultimately plant growth. Some soil-related properties that are affected by soil structure
are erosion/erodibility, infiltration, aeration, root penetration, water holding capacity,
and mechanical strength or tillage properties.
Soils exhibit a desirable structural condition when they have a high proportion of
medium size aggregates, a low bulk density, and an appreciable number of large pores.
Such soils are highly permeable to both water and air, have satisfactory water-infiltration
and water-retaining capacities, are readily penetrated by plant roots, and resist
compaction by farm supplements.
Soils with undesirable structures characteristically show high bulk densities, a few
large pores, and low content of water-stable aggregates. In these soils, permeability to
water and air is low; resistance to root extension (mechanical impedance) is great, and
anaerobic conditions are often approached.
A well-developed structure is especially important for fine-textured soils. A good

soil structure is characterized by a well-aggregated crumb appearance that possesses
balanced macro and micropores, is easier to till with high total porosity, and consequently
lower bulk density. Micropores store water and macropores are for water drainage,
aeration, and root growth.
On the other hand, poor soil structure is characterized by massive or compacted

soil dominated by micropores that contributes to poor drainage, poor aeration, and poor
root growth; hard to till, low porosity, and high bulk density. Effects of soil degradation
include a reduction of the volume of macropores, a decrease in porosity, higher bulk
density or compaction, greater root impedance or poor root growth, a lower amount of
available water, and poor drainage and aeration.
Deteriorated soil structure is indicated by increasing bulk density value, declining

OM (humus) content, absence of earthworm and other soil organisms, cloddy soil when
tilled for fine texture soil, and higher soil erosion. Thus, it is important to note that the
maintenance of good soil structure is often the key to sustainable soil productivity. To
maintain good soil structure, one should follow the following soil management practices:
a) increase soil organic matter accumulation; b) utilization of soil residue as much; c)
cover cropping, crop rotation, green manuring, and multiple cropping; d) appropriate
tillage (minimum or zero tillage) and e) practice and maintain proper soil conservation
practices.
Lesson 4:
Soil Density
Density is defined in physics as mass per unit volume. Soil as a three-phase system
that consists of solid, liquid, and gas have different mass volume parameters. These
parameters may dictate the use of soil and its productivity for agricultural crop
production. Using SI units, the unit for mass in grams (g) and cubic centimeters (cm3)
for volume. There are five ways to define the mass-volume relationship of soil; these are
particle density, dry bulk density, total or wet bulk density, and dry specific volume. With
regards to the air composition of the soil, it is measured as porosity and void ratio.
The density (D) of the given material is mass (M) per unit volume (V): D=M/V in
g/cc or kg/l or t/m3, where D is the density, M is mass or weight and V is the volume.
In this lesson, we’ll discuss the density of soil and its relation to compaction.
Particle Density
The soil particle density (ρs) is defined as the mass per unit volume of soil solids
(in contrast to the volume of the soil, which would also include spaces between particles).
Thus, if 1 cubic centimeter (cm3) of soil solids weighs 2.6 grams (g), the particle density is
2.6 g/cm3 (which can also be expressed as 2.6 grams per cubic centimeter).
Particle density is essentially the same as the specific gravity of a solid substance
and is also called the density of a solid. It is not affected by pore space and therefore is not
related to particle size or the arrangement of particles (soil structure).
Particle densities for most mineral soils vary between the narrow limits of 2.60 and
2.75 g/cm3 because quartz, feldspar, micas, and colloidal silicates usually make up the
major portion of mineral soils all have densities within this range. For general calculations
concerning arable mineral surface soils (1%–5% organic matter), a particle density of
about 2.65 g/cm3 may be assumed if the actual particle density is not known. This number
would be adjusted upward to 3.0 g/cm3 or higher when large amounts of high-density
minerals such as magnetite, garnet, epidote, zircon, tourmaline, or hornblende are
present. Likewise, it would be reduced for soils known to be high in organic matter, which
has a particle density of only 0.9–1.4 G/cm3. This can be computed through the following
formula:
Particle density: ρs = Ms/Vs
Particle density
Soil constituents and their density

SOIL CONSTITUENT (g/cc) DENSITY SOIL CONSTITUENT (g/cc) DENSITY
Humus 1.3 – 1.5 Muscovite 2.7 – 3.0
Clay minerals 2.2 – 2.6 Biotite 2.8 – 3.1
Orthoclase 2.5 – 2.6 Apatite 3.2 – 3.3
Quartz 2.5 – 2.8 Pyrite 4.9 – 5.2
Calcite 2.6 – 2.8 Hematite 4.9 – 5.2
Dolomite 2.8 – 2.9
Example:
Ms= 30g
Vt= 24cm3
Vs= 18cm3
ρs= ?
ρs= Ms/Vs
ρs= 30g/18cm3
ρs= 1.67g/cm3
Bulk Density
The bulk density (ρb) is defined as the mass of a unit volume of dry soil. This
volume includes both solids and pores. Both expressions of bulk and particle density using
only the mass of the solids in soil; therefore, any water present is excluded from
consideration. It is the ratio between the mass of a solid and the total soil volume.
ρb = Ms/Vt (g/cc)
ρb = Ms/(Va+Vw+Vs)
Bulk density (ρb) could have a low value of less than 1 g/cm3 like in organic soils,
or very loose, well-aggregated soil. On the other hand, ρb could have a very high value of
1.6 to 1.9 g/cm3 for highly compacted sandy clay loam soil. A soil that has about 50% of
its total volume occupied by pore space has about 1.3 g/cm 3.
The bulk density changes with soil disturbance or manipulation. It increases with
soil compaction, but the degree of soil compatibility depends on soil texture. For clay soils,
a ρb of 1.5 g/cc or greater (about 1.7 g/cc for sandy soils) indicates a high degree of soil
compaction. At this ρb, problems of root impedance, poor aeration, and poor drainage
usually occur. Seedling emergence, infiltration, and water permeability are impaired.
Soils with a high proportion of pore space to solids have lower bulk densities than
those that are more compact and have less pore space. Consequently, any factor that
influences soil pore space will affect bulk density.
Example:
Ms = 30g
Vt = 24cm3
Vs = 18cm3
ρb = ?
ρb = Ms/Vt
ρb = 30g/24cm3
ρb = 1.25g/cm3
Bulk density
Wet Bulk Density

The wet bulk density is defined as the mass of the solid plus mass of water per unit
of total volume. It is also called total bulk density as it includes the moisture of the soil.
ρt = Mt/Vt
ρt = (Ms+Mw)/(Vs+Vw+Va)
Dry Specific Volume

The dry specific volume is the volume of soil per unit mass of dry soil. It is the
reciprocal of dry bulk density, with a unit cm3/g.
Vb = 1/ ρb
Vb = Vt/Ms
Vb = (Vs+Vw+Va)/Ms
Laboratory Procedure
Soil density, porosity, and void ratio can be determined using different field and
laboratory procedures. Examples of laboratory procedures that range increased are the
core method and paraffin clod method for bulk density identification, and the pycnometer
method for particle density identification. The data collected from laboratory and field
analysis can also be used to determine other mass volume parameters of soil.
Lesson 5:
Soil Porosity
One of the main reasons for measuring soil bulk density is that this value can be
used to calculate pore space. For soils with the same particle density, the lower the bulk
density, the higher the percent pore space (total porosity).
In this lesson, we’ll discuss the different pores and their influences on soil quality.
Size of Pores
Bulk density values help us predict only total porosity. However, soil pores occur
in a wide variety of sizes and shapes that largely determine what role the pore can play in
the soil. Pores can be grouped by size into macropores, mesopores, micropores, and so
on.
Macropores
The macropores range from 0.08 to 5mm and above. Generally, it can be found
between soil peds (inter-ped); it drains water by gravity; effectively transmits air; is large
enough to accommodate plant roots; habitat for certain soil animals.
Macropores can occur as the spaces between individual sand grains in coarse-
textured soils. Thus, even though sandy soil has relatively low total porosity, the
movement of air and water through such soil is surprisingly rapid because of the
dominance of the macropores.
Mesopores
The mesopores range from 0.03 to 0.08mm. It retains water after drainage;
transmits water by capillary action; and accommodates fungi and root hairs. These larger
micropores accommodate plant root hairs and microorganisms.
Micropores
In contrast to macropores, micropores are usually filled with water in field soils.
Even when not water-filled, they are too small to permit much air movement. Water
movement in micropores is slow, and much of the water retained in these pores is not
available to plants. Fine-textured soils, especially those without a stable granular
structure, may have a preponderance of micropores, thus allowing relatively slow gas and
water movement, despite the relatively large volume of total pore space. Aeration,
especially in the subsoil, may be inadequate for satisfactory root development and
desirable microbial activity.
● Nanopores. These are very finer micropores that are so tiny that their radii
are measured in nanometers (10–9 m). Such pores are too small to permit the
entrance of even the smallest bacteria or some decay-stimulating enzymes
produced by the bacteria. Thus, these pores can act as hiding places for some
adsorbed organic compounds (both naturally occurring and pollutants),
thereby protecting them from breakdown for long periods, perhaps for
centuries.
● Ultramicropores. These finer micropores range from 0.0001 to 0.005 mm
and can be found largely within clay groupings; retain water that plants cannot
use; excludes most microorganisms.
● The cryptopores have a size of less than 0.0001mm. It excludes all
microorganisms, too small for large molecules to enter.
Kinds of Pores
Soil porosity usually falls into one of three categories: matrix and non-matrix.
Matrix Pores
The matrix pores (also called interstitial pores) are formed by the agencies
that control the packing of the primary soil particles. In fine and medium-textured soils
these pores are typically smaller than non-matrix pores. Additionally, their aggregate
volume and size change markedly with the water state for soil horizons or layers with high
extensibility. In coarse-textured soils, the interstitial pore size is controlled dominantly
by the primary particle packing and remains fairly stable, although pores may become
filled with finer material over time.
Controlled by the fabric, or arrangement, of the soil particles, also known as

textural voids. Subdivision is possible into simple packing voids, which relate to the
packing of sand particles, and compound packing voids, which result from the packing of
non-accommodating peds. Predominantly irregular in shape and interconnected, and
hard to quantify in the field.
Non-Matrix Pores
The non-matrix pores are relatively large voids that occur not only when the soil
is dry but also when it is moderately moist or wetter. It may be formed by roots, animals,
compressed air, and other agents. The size distribution of these pores typically is not
associated with the particle-size distribution and the related matrix pore-size
distribution. For water movement at low suction and conditions of satiation, the non-
matrix and infrastructural porosity have particular importance.
Common non-matrix pore shapes are the following:

• Vesicular pores are small, approximately spherical, or elliptical. These cavities
are caused by entrapped air bubbles, most commonly occurring in or below
mineral or biological crusts or desert pavement, especially in arid soils. As the size
and/or several near-surface vesicular pores increase, infiltration is drastically
reduced, and surface runoff increases. A horizon dominated by vesicular pores is
identified as a vesicular master horizon (V).
• Vughs are mostly irregular, equidimensional voids of the faunal origin or
resulting from tillage or disturbance of other voids. Discontinuous or
interconnected. Maybe quantified in specific cases.
• Channels (also called bio-pores) are elongated voids of faunal or floral origin,
mostly tubular in shape and continuous, varying strongly in diameter. When wider
than a few centimeters (burrow holes), they are more adequately described under
biological activity. There are two types of channels:
o Worm channels. Approximately cylindrical and elongated. It is also
called tubular.
o Root channels. It is similar to tubular but branching. It is also called
dendritic tubular.
• Planes. Most planes are extra-pedal voids, related to accommodating ped surfaces
or cracking patterns. They are often not persistent and vary in size, shape, and
quantity depending on the moisture condition of the soil. Planar voids may be
recorded, describing width and frequency.
Extra-Structural Cracks
Cracks are macroscopic vertical planar voids that are much smaller in width than
in length and depth. A crack represents the release of strain as a consequence of drying.
Cracks are characterized as either crust-related or trans-horizon.
• Crust-related cracks are shallow cracks that initiate at the surface and are
restricted to a surface crust layer. They form primarily from raindrop impact and
soil puddling followed by drying and consolidation. Two kinds of crust-related
cracks are recognized: reversible and irreversible.
• Trans-horizon cracks commonly extend across more than one horizon. They
may extend upward to the soil surface and downward to a significant depth. These
cracks are commonly associated with soils that have a high content of smectitic
clay minerals. They open as the soil dries out and close upon rewetting. Less
commonly, some trans-horizon cracks form upon dewatering and subsequent
consolidation of poorly drained sediments with high n-value (fluid materials). Two
kinds of trans-horizon cracks are recognized: reversible and irreversible.
Computation
Percent pore space
The bulk density of soil can be easily measured and particle density can usually be
assumed to be 2.65 g/cm3 for most silicate-dominated mineral soils. Direct measurement
of the pore space in soil requires the use of much more tedious and expensive techniques.
Therefore, when information on the percent pore space is needed, it is often desirable to
calculate the pore space from data on bulk and particle densities. It can be computed using
the following formula:
f = (Vp/Vt)*100
= 100% - [(Vs/Vt)*100]
The derivation of the formula used to calculate the percentage of total pore space
in soil follows:
Let ρb = bulk density, g/cm3
ρs = particle density, g/cm3
Ws = Weight of soil (solids), g
Vs = volume of solids, cm3
Vp = volume of pores, cm3
Vs + Vp = total soil volume Vt
By definition,
ρs = Ws/Vs and ρb = Ws/Vs + Vp
Solving for Ws gives

Ws = ρs x Vs and Ws = ρb (Vs + Vp)
Therefore
ρs x Vs = ρb (Vs + Vp) and Vs/Vs + Vp = ρb / ρs
Since:
(Vs/Vs + Vp) x 100 = % solid space then
% solid space = (ρb / ρs) x 100
Since % pore space + % solid space = 100%, then pore space = 100% - ((ρb /ρs) x
100)
Example:
Consider cultivated clay soil with a bulk density determined to be 1.28 g/cm 3. If we
have no information on the particle density, we assume that the particle density is
approximately that of the common silicate minerals (i.e., 2.65 g/cm3). We calculate the
percent pore space using the formula derived above:
% pore space = 100% - (1.28 g/cm3/2.65 g/cm3 x 100)

= 100% - 48.3
= 51.7%
This value of pore space, 51.7%, is quite close to the typical percentage of air and
water space described for a well-granulated, medium- to fine-textured soil in good
condition for plant growth. This simple calculation tells us nothing about the relative
amounts of large and small pores, however, and so must be interpreted with caution.
Using this value and the bulk density value, we calculate the pore space as follows:
f = (Vp/Vt)*100
f = (Vt-Vs)/Vt
f = 1-(Vs/Vt )
Void Ratio
The void ratio is the relative proportion of the voids to that of soil solid. It is
generally preferred in soil engineering and mechanics. It is measured by dividing the sum
of the volume of air and water by the volume of soil solid.
The advantage of the void ratio over percent pore space is that a change in pore
volume changes the numerator alone, whereas a change of the volume in terms of the
porosity will change both the numerator and denominator of the equation. It can be
computed using the following formula:
e = (Va+Vw)/Vs
e = Vp/(Vt-Vf)
Lesson 6:
Soil Consistency
Soil consistency (or consistence) is the manifestation of the physical forces of
cohesion and adhesion acting within the soil at various moisture contents including
behavior towards gravity and pressure.
The consistency of the soil material is expressed in the degree of cohesion and
adhesion or in its property to resist deformation, rupture, or any physical alteration. This
term is used to describe the ease at which the soil can be reshaped or ruptured or in
layman’s terms how soil resists penetration by an object. To be able to fully grasp the
concept of soil consistency, one must first understand cohesion and adhesion and how
these forces operate in the soil. Adhesion (adhere/stick) is the attraction of dissimilar
objects, in the soil, it refers to the attraction of water to soil solids. Cohesion is a result
of attractive forces between similar objects (cohere/bond/unity).
The consistency of cohesive materials is closely related to, but not exactly the
same as, their consistence. Conditions of least coherence are represented by different
terms.
In this lesson, we’ll discuss the different soil consistence and their influences on
soil quality.
Consistency
Engineers use the term consistency to describe how soil resists penetration by an
object. Instead of crushing a clod of soil, the engineer attempts to penetrate it with either
the blunt end of a pencil (some use their thumbs) or a thumbnail. For example, if the blunt
end of a pencil makes only a slight indentation, but the thumbnail penetrates easily, the
soil is rated as very firm. Consistency, then, is a kind of simple field estimation of soil
strength or penetration resistance.
Some Field Tests and Terms are Used to Describe the Consistency of Soils (Weil &
Brady, 2017)
THE SOIL AT IN FIELD PENETRATION TEST
SITU MOISTURE
Soft The blunt end of a pencil penetrates deeply with ease
Medium-firm The blunt end of the pencil can penetrate about 1.25 cm with
moderate
effort
Firm The blunt end of the pencil can penetrate about 0.5 cm
Very firm The blunt end of a pencil makes slight indentation; the thumbnail
easily penetrates
Hard The blunt end of a pencil makes no indentation thumbnail barely

penetrates
Consistence
The term is used by soil scientists to describe resistance to rupture. It is used to
describe the ease with which soil can be reshaped or ruptured. As a clod of soil is squeezed
between the thumb and forefinger (or crushed underfoot, if necessary), observations are
made on the amount of force needed to crush the clod and on how the soil responds to
the force.
Some field tests and terms are used to describe the consistence of soils (Weil & Brady,
2017)
DRY MOIST SOIL DRIED AND THEN FIELD RUPTURE
TO WET SUBMERGED IN WATER (CRUSHING) TEST
Loose Loose Not applicable Specimen not obtainable
Soft Very Non-cemented Crumbles under very slight

friable force between thumb and
forefinger
Slightly Friable Extremely weakly Crumbles under slight force

hard cemented between thumb and forefinger
Hard Firm Weakly Crushes with difficulty

cemented between thumb and forefinger
Very hard Extremely Moderately Cannot be crushed between

firm cemented thumb and forefinger, but can
be crushed slowly underfoot
Extremely Slightly Strongly Cannot be crushed by full body

hard rigid cemented weight underfoot
The soil consistency designates the manifestation of the physical forces of cohesion
and adhesion acting within the soil at various moisture contents including behavior
towards gravity and pressure.
Dry → Moist → Wet → Saturated → Supersaturated
Atterburg Limits
The Atterburg Limits distinguish the boundary between soil consistencies such as
the following:
● Flocculation Limits – the mass wetness at which the soil suspension is
transformed from a liquid state to a semi-liquid state
● Liquid Limits – the mass wetness at which the soil water system change from a
vicious state to a plastic body
● Plastic Limit – the mass wetness at which the soil stiffens from a plastic to a
semi-rigid and friable state.
● Shrinkage Limit- the mass wetness at which the soil changes from a semi-rigid
to a rigid solid with no additional change in specific volume as drying proceeds.
● Sticky Limit- the minimum mass wetness value at which the soil paste will
adhere to a sheet spatula drawn over its surface.
Soil inhibits different consistency forms depending on soil moisture content.

● Liquid Limit – Minimum soil moisture content when the soil ceases to act like
a liquid or maximum moisture content when the soil assumes to be plastic.
● Shrinkage Limit – minimum moisture content when water is acting as a
lubricant. When the soil becomes drier, the soil volume will not change, or no
corresponding decrease in soil volume.
Field Rating
Field observations of both consistence and consistency provide valuable
information to guide decisions about loading and manipulating soils. For construction
purposes, however, more precise measurements are needed for related soil properties
that help predict how soil will respond to applied stress.
Classes of soil consistency depend on the soil moisture of the soil:

• Dry
• Moist
• Wet
The consistence when dry is determined by breaking an air-dried mass of soil

• Loose. Non-coherent.
• Soft. Soil mass is very weakly coherent and fragile; breaks to powder or individual
grains under very slight pressure.
• Slightly hard. Weakly resistant to pressure; easily broken between thumb and
forefinger.
• Hard. Moderately resistant to pressure; can be broken in the hands; not breakable
between thumb and forefinger.
• Very hard. Very resistant to pressure; can be broken in the hands only with
difficulty.
• Extremely hard. Extremely resistant to pressure; cannot be broken in the hands.
The consistence when moist is determined by attempting to crush a mass of moist

or slightly moist soil material.
• Loose. Non-coherent.
• Very friable. Soil material crushes under very gentle pressure but coheres when
pressed together.
• Friable. Soil material crushes easily under gentle to moderate pressure between
thumb and forefinger and coheres when pressed together.
• Firm. Soil material crushes under moderate pressure between thumb and
forefinger, but resistance is distinctly noticeable.
• Very firm. Soil material crushes under strong pressures; barely crushable between
thumb and forefinger.
• Extremely firm. Soil material crushes only under very strong pressure; cannot be
crushed between thumb and forefinger.
The consistence when wet is determined by stickiness and plasticity.

• Stickiness is the quality of adhesion of the soil material to other objects determined
by noting the adherence of soil material when it is pressed between thumb and
finger.
o Non-sticky. After the release of pressure, practically no soil material
adheres to the thumb and finger.
o Slightly sticky. After pressure, soil material adheres to both thumb and
finger but comes off one or the other rather cleanly. It is not appreciably
stretched when the digits are separated.
o Sticky. After pressure, soil material adheres to both thumb and finger and
tends to stretch somewhat and pull apart rather than pulling free from
either digit.
o Very sticky. After pressure, soil material adheres strongly to both thumb
and finger and is decidedly stretched when they are separated.
• Plasticity is the ability of soil material to change shape continuously under the
influence of applied stress and to retain the compressed shape on removal of stress.
o Non-plastic. No wire is formable.
o Slightly plastic. Wire formable but breaks immediately if bent into a ring;
soil mass deformed by very slight force.
o Plastic. Wire formable but breaks if bent into a ring; slight to the moderate
force required for deformation of the soil mass.
o Very plastic. The wire is formable and can be bent into a ring; moderately
strong to the very strong force required for the deformation of the soil mass.
Importance
Soil consistency is important in tillage management or land operation. At a sticky
point, compaction is encouraged due to the formation of a dense layer. Soil consistency
can be described as:
• Hard or Harshed – between ODW and Shrinkage limit;
• Friable – between Shrinkage Limit and Plastic Limit;
• Sticky and Plastic – between Plastic Limit and Liquid Limit and
• Viscous – between Liquid Limit and Saturation
SUMMARY
Consistency and consistence of soil are similar in many ways, however, it uses
different terms for soil description. It is a kind of simple field estimation of soil strength
or penetration resistance to rupture.
Lesson 7:
Soil Moisture
Soil consists of solids, liquids, and gasses, the three phases of matter, which are
always present in the soil. And there are spaces (pores) between the solid particles where
air and water are stored.
Soil moisture is the water stored in the soil and its amount in every soil varies
under different conditions.
In this lesson, we’ll discuss the different ways of computing and measuring soil
moisture and its classification.
Soil Moisture Content

Soil moisture content can be measured in the following ways: (1)
gravimetric moisture content, (2) volumetric moisture content, (3) height of the water,
and (4) degree of saturation.
Gravimetric Moisture Content (θm)

The gravimetric soil water content is the mass of water in the soil, measured as
the difference between the moist soil and the soil dried at 105°C, known as the oven-dry
weight. Note that gravimetric soil water content is expressed per unit mass of oven-dried
soil. It is also called the moisture content by mass (θm)
Measurements of soil gravimetric water content are considered destructive (oven-

drying), so the soil sample should not be used for further chemical analysis.
The formula for gravimetric moisture content
This is a direct measurement of soil water content and the standard method by
which all indirect methods are calibrated. The water associated with a given mass (and, if
the bulk density of the soil is known, a given volume) of dry soil solids is determined.
Volumetric Moisture Content (θV)

The volumetric soil water content is the volume of water per unit of bulk volume
including soil solids plus pore spaces of the soil the conversion from Gravimetric to
Volumetric using the Bulk density of the soil (g/cm3) is:
The formula for volumetric moisture content

This equation can be rewritten to calculate the depth equivalent of water in a soil,
which makes it easy to relate volumetric soil water content to units commonly used to
describe amounts of water added to soils from rainfall or irrigation, which are expressed
in inches or cm.
In sandy soils, the value of θv at saturation is 40-50 % and for medium-textured

soil is more or less 50%. Clayey soils can approach 60% and can exceed the porosity of
dry soil since clayey soils swell upon wetting.
The formula for the height of water
Height of Water (hw)

Volumetric moisture content can also represent the depth ratio of soil water i.e.,
the depth of water per unit depth of soil. Volumetric soil water content (%) = [depth of
water in inches (cm)/depth of soil in inches (cm)] × 100.
This is the volumetric water concentration multiplied by cm of water in a given

depth zone of the soil. Volumetric water content can be expressed as a ratio, percentage,
or depth of water per depth of soil (assuming a unit surface area), such as inches of water
per foot of soil.
The volumetric water content is a useful measurement. First, it more realistically

describes the moisture environment of growing plant root systems as they explore a given
volume of soil. Secondly, volumetric water values can be converted to represent water
content at a particular equivalent soil depth or thickness. Representing water at a specific
depth changes the expression from a volume (cm3) to a linear (cm) expression of soil
water:
For example, a 25 cm layer of soil with a volumetric water content of 20% (or 0.20
when expressed as a decimal fraction) would contain 5 cm of water in the 25 cm layer of
soil:
hw = 25 cm soil x 0.20
hw = 5 cm of water
Degree of Saturation (S)

Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio, often expressed as a percentage, of the volume
of water to the volume of voids.
This index expresses the water volume present in the soil relative to the pore
volume or it is the ratio of the volume of water in the soil to the volume of voids. Index of
saturation ranges from zero in completely dry soil to unity (100%) in saturated soil.
Complete saturation, however, is hardly ever attainable in field conditions, since some air
is nearly always present. In relatively dry soil, the air phase occupies a continuous space,
whereas in very wet soil air may be occluded or encapsulated in the form of discontinuous
bubbles.
The formula for the degree of saturation
Soil Water Constraint

As an initially water-saturated soil dries down, both the soil and the soil water
undergo a series of gradual changes in physical behavior and their relationships with
plants. These changes are due mainly to the fact that the water remaining in the drying
soil is found in smaller pores, in thinner films, or in smaller pore corners where the water
potential is lowered principally by the action of matric forces.
To study these changes and introduce the terms commonly used to describe
varying degrees of soil wetness. The terms to be introduced describe various stages along
a continuum of soil wetness and should not be interpreted to imply that soil water exists
in different “forms.”
These forms are associated with soil moisture tension. Soil moisture tension (SMT)
is the force by which water is held in the soil. It is also the force that must be overcome by
plant roots to draw water from the soil It is expressed in atmospheres (atm) or bars, where
1 atm = 1.01325 bar; 1 bar = 0.9869 atm Tension becomes larger when the amount of
water stored or retained is smaller.
SMT is low in wet soils and increases as the soil dries up. Soil moisture moves from
a zone of low SMT to a zone of high SMT, from a wetter to a drier portion of the soil.
Volumes of water and air associated with 100 g of soil solids
Maximum Water Holding Capacity

As water enters the surface of the soil due to the heavy rain or application of
irrigation water, the air is displaced from the dry soil, and pores large or small start to fill
up. Continued addition of water to the surface results in decreased downward movement
of water. When all pores are filled with water the soil is considered to be its maximum
water holding capacity. At this point, suction is expected to be zero or near zero.
Gravitational water, also called drainage water; is the water that soon drains out
of the macropores. It is also the difference between the water at maximum water holding
capacity and the water at field capacity.
It is mathematically given as DW= MW-FC.
Field Capacity
The field capacity may be defined as the maximum amount of moisture the soil
can hold after drainage in a given period. Theoretically, it is the amount of water held by
soil against gravity. In terms of its working definition, it refers to the wetness of initially
saturated soil after, say, two days of free drainage.
In the laboratory, it is the soil water content at 3.3 m (33kPa ,0.33 bar) (clay-loam)
or 1 m (10kPa, 0.1 bar) (sand) suction. The soil adjusts to this condition for 2 or 3 days
after rain.
Hence during field capacity, the water has moved away from the macropores which
become free of water. Only micropores contain the soil water and it is from this source
that plants will absorb moisture for their use. Water movement does not stop, but such
movement will be very slow to be perceptible.
Field Capacity depends on soil texture, type of clay, organic matter, depth to the
water table, depth of soil, surrounding topography, presence of layers in the soil, and time
of measurement.
Permanent Wilting Point

Wilting coefficient (WC) (also known as the permanent wilting point (PWP)) –
represents the moisture content of the soil below which plants growing will wilt because
the sod can no longer supply at a sufficient rate to maintain turgor. For most soils, the
suction, the suction of 15 bars, and the amount of available water (AW) may be readily be
estimated by subtracting the amount of water the sod retains at 15 bars (WC) from the
amount of water the soil retains at 1/3 bar (FC).
It is mathematically given as AW= FC-WC.
Hygroscopic Coefficient (HC)

Hygroscopic coefficient (HC) is the soil moisture constant representing the
condition wherein water is held so tightly and appears as a very thin film of water around
a soil particle and may move only through vapor transfer. The suction of water at this
condition is about 31 bars.
Classification of Soil Water

Biological classification of soil water
The biological classification of soil water is the classification of water in relation to
living plants.
● Superfluous water is the water that occupies a large pore space that would
readily drain downward due to gravity. It is equivalent to free or drainage water.
It is the moisture in excess of that held at field capacity and is of no benefit to
plants. If too much free water is present and not drained away, the growth of
plants will be adversely affected.
● Available water is the portion of water in the soil that can be readily absorbed
and assimilated by plant roots. It is the moisture held between field capacity
and wilting coefficient. As the name implies, most of the water needed by
plants comes from it.
● Unavailable water is the water that is used by the fine pore spaces with high
energy of retention. It is the moisture held in the soil at the permanent wilting
point. It includes the hygroscopic water and some portion of the capillary water
which is removed too slowly by plants to prevent wilting.
Physical classification of soil water

● Free water (also called gravitational water) is the water that moves into,
though, or out of the soil due to the influence of gravity. This corresponds to
the superfluous water under the biological classification. The following are the
various characteristics of the free water:
○ Water in the soil above that held at field capacity
○ Loosely held, less than 0.1 to 0.5-atmosphere tension
○ Undesirable, removed in drainage
○ Moves in response to film tension and gravitational forces
○ Nutrients leached with water
● Capillary water is the water that is held in the capillary or fine pores in the soil.
This form of water corresponds to the available water under the biological
classification. The following are the various characteristics of the capillary
water:
○ Held between FC and hygroscopic coefficient in microspores
○ Tension of films varies from about 0.1 to 31 atmospheres
○ Not all available to plants
○ Moves by film adjustment from thick to thin films
○ Functions as the soil solution
● Hygroscopic water corresponds to the unavailable water under the biological
classification. The following are the various characteristics of the hygroscopic
water:
○ Held at the hygroscopic coefficient
○ Tension varies from 31 to 10,000 atmosphere
○ Largely non-liquid
○ Held mostly by the soil colloids
○ Moves mostly in the vapor form
Importance
Water makes up about four-fifths of the weight of a green plant. Of the rest, by far
the greatest part is made up of compounds that are synthesized from water and carbon
dioxide.
It is obvious that plants cannot grow in dry soil, but as the roots need air as well as
water, mesophytic plants cannot grow in wet soil for any length of time. Under conditions
of adequate oxygen supply plant growth steadily decreases with the increase of soil
moisture tension from near saturation to the wilting point.
Some of the more important functions of soil moisture relevant to soils are the
following:
1. Absorption of moisture by plants. Moisture enters plant roots by the process
of osmosis, which is defined as the movement of a liquid through a
semipermeable membrane caused by unequal concentrations on the two sides.
The amount of water from leaf cells causes water to move into them from the
xylem vessels. It should be revealed that plant roots do not absorb the soil
solution as much, as animals drink water containing soluble material. The
water enters the roots as pure water without regard to the intake of any
materials dissolved in it. The entrance of dissolved substances is entirely a
separate process
2. Movement of nutrients in soil moisture. Nutrients dissolved in the soil solution
move with it, and so when moisture moves, i.e., capillarity rise, to replace that
which has been taken up by plants, a supply of nutrients may be moved near
the roots.
3. Water requirement of crops. The quantity of water required to produce a crop

other than that retained in the plants is the following:
(a) Water lost by evaporation from the soil moisture
(b) Water lost by evaporation from plant surface (transpiration)
Evapotranspiration is collectively used to refer to these processes. The inches of

water lost by evapotranspiration in the production of a crop is the consumptive use.
Lesson 8:
Soil Aeration
In order for plant roots and other soil organisms to readily carry-on respiration,
the soil must be well-ventilated. Good ventilation allows the exchange of gases between
the soil and the atmosphere to supply enough oxygen (O2) while preventing the
potentially toxic accumulation of gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
and ethylene (C2H6). Soil aeration status involves the rate of such ventilation, as well as
the proportion of pore spaces filled with air, the composition of that soil air, and the
resulting chemical oxidation or reduction potential in the soil environment.
In this lesson, we’ll discuss soil aeration and its importance.
Soil Air
Soil aeration is the interchange of gases, especially oxygen, of the soil atmosphere
with those of the free atmosphere above the soil. Oxygen, because of its direct involvement
in respiration, is necessary for the proper functioning of roots and soil microorganisms.
If the supply of oxygen is restricted, both root extension and uptake of nutrients and water
by roots may be limited.
The term poor soil aeration refers to a condition in which the availability of O in 2
the root zone is insufficient to support the optimal growth of upland plants and aerobic
microorganisms. A lack of oxygen also tends to arrest organic matter decomposition and
the associated release of mineral nutrients and it may cause the reduction of iron,
manganese, and sulfate to forms that are toxic to plants.
Typically, poor aeration becomes a serious impediment to plant growth when O 2
concentration drops below 0.1 L/L.
Gaseous Composition
The atmosphere above the soil contains nearly 21% O , 0.035% CO , and more than
2 2
78% N . In comparison, soil air has about the same level of N but is consistently lower in
2 2
O and higher in CO .
2 2
Oxygen
The O content may be only slightly below 20% in the upper layers of soil with an
2
abundance of macropores. It may drop to less than 5% or even too near zero in the lower
horizons of poorly drained soil with few macropores. Once the supply of O is exhausted,
2
the soil environment is said to be anaerobic. Low O contents are typical of wet soils. Even
2
in well-drained soils, marked reductions in the O content of soil air may follow heavy
2
rain, especially if oxygen is being rapidly consumed by actively growing plant roots or by
microbes decomposing readily available supplies of organic materials. Oxygen depletion
in this manner occurs most rapidly when the soil is warm.
Carbon Dioxide
Since the N content of soil air is relatively constant, there is a general inverse
2
relationship between the contents of the other two major components of soil air— O and 2
CO —with O decreasing as CO increases. Although the actual differences in CO amounts

2 2 2 2
may not be impressive, they are significant, comparatively speaking. Thus, when the soil
air contains only 0.35% CO , this gas is about ten times as concentrated as it is in the
2
atmosphere. In cases where the CO content becomes as high as 10%, it may be toxic to
2
some plant processes.

Other Gases
Soil air usually is much higher in water vapor than is the atmosphere, being
essentially saturated except at or very near the surface of the soil. Also, under waterlogged
conditions, the concentrations of gases such as methane (CH ) and hydrogen sulfide (H S),
4 2
which are formed as organic matter decomposes, are notably higher in soil air. Another
gas produced by anaerobic microbial metabolism is ethylene (C2H4). This is very
bioactive and is involved in how some plants sense the depletion of O2 in their root zones.
When gas exchange rates between the atmosphere and the soil are so slow that ethylene
accumulates, even in concentrations as low as 1 μL/L (0.0001%), root growth of a number
of plants has been shown to be inhibited.
Gaseous interchange
The more rapidly roots and microbes use up oxygen and release carbon dioxide,
the greater is the need for ventilation—the exchange of gases between the soil and the
atmosphere. This exchange is facilitated by two mechanisms - mass flow, and diffusion.
The processes of mass flow and diffusion are responsible for gaseous exchange in
soils. Both take place in response to a difference in gas pressure and cause the net
movement of gas to be in the direction of decreasing pressure.
Mass Flow
The mass flow of air is enhanced by fluctuations in soil moisture content that force
air in or out of the soil and by wind and changes in barometric pressure of the outer
atmosphere, or by displacement of air when the soil is wetted, which is then followed by
the re-entry of fresh air as the pores are drained of water. It is believed that mass flow is
relatively not important to the overall aeration of soils.
Diffusion
The term diffusion is applied to the movement of individual gasses within a
mixture. It is caused by a dependent variable in the pressure of single gas and results in
flow that does not relate to the flow of other gases in the mixture.
The great bulk of gaseous interchange in soils occurs by diffusion. Through

diffusion, each gas moves in a direction determined by its own partial pressure. The
partial pressure of a gas in a mixture is simply the pressure this gas would exert if it alone
were present in the volume occupied by the mixture. Thus, if the pressure of air is 100
kPa (∼1 atmosphere), the partial pressure of oxygen, which makes up about 21% (0.21
L/L) of the air by volume, is approximately 21 kPa.
Diffusion allows extensive gas movement from one area to another even though
there is no overall pressure gradient for the total mixture of gases. There is, however, a
concentration gradient for each individual gas, which may be expressed as a partial
pressure gradient. As a consequence, the higher concentration of oxygen in the
atmosphere will result in a net movement of this particular gas into the soil. Carbon
dioxide and water vapor normally move in opposite directions, since the partial pressures
of these two gases are generally higher in the soil air than in the atmosphere.
The change in pressure responsible for diffusion reflects a corresponding change

in the concentration of a gas. For example, oxygen diffuses into the soil so long as its
concentration there is below that of the outer atmosphere. Similarly, carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the soil because biological respiration increases its concentration above
that of the outer atmosphere. In soil aeration, therefore, diffusion tends to establish a
uniform concentration of CO2 and O2 everywhere but is unable to, so long as respiration in
the soil continues.
Carbon dioxide accumulation

As mentioned earlier, carbon dioxide may accumulate to such an extent that it
becomes toxic to the roots. It is found that translocation in sunflowers was reduced by
only 10% when nitrogen saturated the nutrient solution, while carbon dioxide saturation
caused a reduction of 50%. Since oxygen is excluded from both solutions, the drastic
reduction due to CO cannot be attributed to a lack of oxygen.
2
When soils are flooded, there is a significant increase in CO which usually reaches
2
a peak before the fourth week after submergence. CO is very soluble in water and readily
2
forms: CO + H O = H2CO3. Carbonic acid through the weak acid, dissociated as described
2 2
by the following equations:
Carbonic acid
It is therefore clear that as the concentration of carbon dioxide in the soil solution
increases, there is also a corresponding increase in the concentration of H + ions. CO2
concentrations exceeding 15% are toxic to rice. But the concentration in paddy soils is
usually below this level.
Air-Filled Porosity
The ideal soil composition for plant growth would include close to a 50:50 mix of
air and water in the soil pore space, or about 25% air in the soil, by volume (assuming a
total porosity of 50%). Many researchers believe that microbiological activity and plant
growth become severely inhibited in most soils when air-filled porosity falls below 20%
of the pore space or 10% of the total soil volume (with correspondingly high water
contents).
One of the principal reasons that high water contents cause oxygen deficiencies for
roots is that water-filled pores block the diffusion of oxygen into the soil to replace that
used by respiration. In fact, oxygen diffuses 10,000 times faster through a pore filled with
air than through a similar pore filled with water.
Air-filled porosity will be measured by computing the relative air content of the
soil using the formula below.
Formula For Air-Filled Porosity

Factors of Aeration
Oxygen availability in field soils is regulated by three principal factors: (1) soil
macroporosity (as affected by texture and structure), (2) soil water content (as it affects
the proportion of porosity that is filled with air), and (3) O2 consumption by respiring
organisms (including plant roots and microorganisms).
Soil Macroporosity
The structure is important to aeration principally as a means of introducing large
pore spaces into fine-textured soils. Large pores provide a good avenue for gas exchange
because they tend to drain rapidly after soil wetting. However, if drainage is impeded by
a factor such as an impervious subsoil layer, a waterlogged condition may develop
regardless of pore space relations in the soil and so reduce aeration that the growth of
many agricultural crops is greatly retarded.
Compaction can cut off the gas exchange by decreasing pore size and total pore
space, even if the soil is not very wet and has a relatively large percentage of air-filled
pores. As the compaction becomes greater and/or the structure determines the volume of
pore spaces decreases drastically, restricting adequate gas exchange. This occurs since
pores filled with water are a barrier to oxygen exchange especially since the diffusion of
oxygen in water is only 1/10,000 of the diffusion in air. There is probably no relationship
more important to aeration than the effect of texture as it affects the rapid removal of
excess water following soil wetting. Many slowly permeable soils fail to drain quickly and
may therefore contain a minimum of free air space for long periods after wetting.
Soil Water Content

Poor aeration often occurs when more than 80–90% of the soil pore space is filled
with water. Thus, the soil is said to be water saturated or waterlogged. Waterlogged soil
conditions are typical of wetlands and may also occur for short periods of time on upland
sites. The high soil water content not only leaves less than 10–20% of the pore space for
air storage but, more importantly, the water blocks the pathways by which gases could
exchange with the atmosphere.
In well-drained soils, saturated conditions may occur temporarily during a heavy

rainstorm, when excess irrigation water is applied, or if wet soil has been compacted by
plowing or by heavy machinery.
Oxygen Consumption
Most plants, however, are dependent on a supply of oxygen from the soil to their
roots and suffer dramatically if good soil aeration is not maintained by drainage or other
means. Some plants succumb to O2 deficiency or toxicity of other gases within hours after
the soil becomes saturated. Other upland plants are capable of sensing low O2 levels and
adapting their physiology or morphology (for instance, by developing aerenchyma or
slowing their oxygen use) within a few days or weeks to alleviate the aeration stress.
Plants adapted to life in waterlogged soils are termed hydrophytes. Examples are
sedges and certain grass species, including rice, that transport oxygen for respiration
down to their roots via hollow structures in their stems and roots known as aerenchyma
tissues. Mangroves and other hydrophytic trees produce aerial roots and other structures
that allow their roots to obtain O2 while growing in water-saturated soils.
Lesson 9:
Soil Temperature
Soil temperature is a very important soil physical property as it affects plant growth
and development, soil moisture, aeration, structure, microbial and enzyme activity,
decomposition of residues, and plant nutrient availability.
In this lesson, we’ll introduce what soil is and its importance.
Ideal Soil Temperature

Soil temperature measures the thermal state of the soil body concerning its ability
to transfer heat. In some way, we can also say that soil temperature is the measure of the
soil’s intensity or potential energy, or heat. If we are to compare soil temperature with soil
water movement, the temperature is the driving force for heat flow, as the pressure head
is the driving force for water flow.
For one to fully understand temperature, one must first seek the meaning of heat.
Heat is the kinetic energy of the random motion of the ultimate particles on which
material bodies are composed. The temperature on the other hand refers to a particular
level or degree of molecular activity in simpler terms it is the intensity of heat or the level
of heat.
Ideal soil temperatures for most plants are 65 to 75 F. (18-24 C.)
Absorption and loss of heat

The temperature of soils in the field is directly or indirectly dependent on at least
three factors: (1) the net amount of heat energy the soil absorbs; (2) the heat energy
required to bring about a given change in the temperature of soil; and (3) the energy
required for processes such as evaporation, which are constantly occurring at or near the
surface of soils.
Solar radiation is the primary source of energy to heat soils. But clouds and dust
particles intercept the sun’s rays and absorb, scatter, or reflect most of the energy. Only
about 35%–40% of the solar radiation actually reaches the Earth in cloudy humid regions
and 75% in cloud-free arid areas. The global average is about 50%.
Little of the solar energy reaching the Earth actually results in soil warming. The
energy is used primarily to evaporate water from the soil or leaf surfaces or is radiated or
reflected back to the sky. Only about 10% is absorbed by and warms the soil. Even so, this
warming is critical to soil processes and to plants growing in soils.
Albedo
The fraction of incident radiation that is reflected by the land surface is termed the
albedo and ranges from as low as 0.1–0.2 for dark-colored, rough soil surfaces to as high
as 0.5 or more for smooth, light-colored surfaces. Vegetation may affect the surface
albedo, either way, depending on whether it is dark green and growing or yellow and
dormant.
The fact that dark-colored soils absorb more energy than lighter-colored ones does
not necessarily imply, however, that dark soils are always warmer. In fact, the opposite is
often true. In most landscapes, the darkest soils are those found in the low spots where
excessive wetness has caused the organic matter to accumulate. Therefore, the darkest
soils are also usually the wettest. The water in these soils will absorb much energy with
only little change in temperature, and it also cools the soil when it evaporates.
Slope angle and aspect

The angle at which the sun’s rays strike the soil also influences soil temperature. If
the incoming path of the rays of solar energy is perpendicular to the soil surface, energy
absorption (and soil temperature increase) is greatest.
Planting crops on soil ridges is one method of controlling the soil aspect on a
microscale. This is most effectively done at high latitudes by planting crops on the south-
or southwest-facing sides of ridges. The ridges need to be only about 25 cm tall to have a
major effect.
Rain
Mention should also be made of the effect of rain or irrigation water on soil
temperature. In the summer, rainfall cools the soil, since it is often cooler than the soil it
penetrates. On the other hand, in temperate zones, spring rain definitely warms the
surface soil in the short term as the relatively warm water moves into cold soil. However,
spring rain, by increasing the amount of solar energy used in evaporating water from the
soil, can also accentuate low temperatures.
Soil cover
Whether the soil is bare or is covered with vegetation, mulch, or snow is another
factor markedly influencing the amount of solar radiation reaching the soil. Bare soils
warm up more quickly and cool off more rapidly than those covered with vegetation,
snow, or plastic mulches. Frost penetration during the winter is considerably greater in
bare, non-insulated land.
Even low-growing vegetation such as turfgrass has a very noticeable influence on

soil temperature and on the temperature of the surroundings. Much of the cooling effect
is due to heat dissipated by the transpiration of water.
Factors
There are many factors affecting soil temperature, below are some of the
environmental factors and their effect on soil temperature.
● Solar radiation. The amount of heat from the sun that reaches the earth is 2 g-
cal/cm2-min. The amount received by the soil is much less.
● Radiation from the sky. Much of the sun’s energy is absorbed by the
atmosphere and is radiated in all directions. In the tropics, sun rays pass
through the atmosphere more nearly vertically and lose little energy.
● Conduction of heat from the atmosphere. Conduction of heat through the air is
small, and it can have a substantial effect on soil temperature only by contact.
● Condensation. Being an exothermic process, whenever water vapor condenses,
the soil is heated up by 5 degrees centigrade
● Evaporation. Being an endothermic process, the greater the evaporation, the
more the soil cooled down.
● Rainfall. Depending on the temperature, rainfall can cool or warm the soil
● Insulation. During summer, insulated soil is cooler than the soil that is directly
exposed to the elements, while during winter the situation is reversed
● Vegetation. Transpiration of water, a reflection of incident radiation, and
energy used for photosynthesis by plants tend to decrease the temperature of
the microclimate and indirectly the soil.
● Biological activity. Biological activity evolves heat, and the greater the activity
in the soil, the more it is heated up
● Radiation. Soil color has a considerable effect on the reflection of the incoming
radiation, generally darker soils, a smaller fraction of the incoming radiation is
reflected. The ratio of the reflected energy with the incident radiation is called
albedo. Generally, the larger the albedo, the cooler the soil, and the rough
surface absorb more solar radiation than a smooth surface. Dark and moist
soils absorb more radiation than dry and light-colored soils.
● Structure, texture, and moisture. Usually, compacted soils have greater thermal
activity than loose soils and organic soils have lesser thermal conductivity than
mineral soils.
● Soluble salts. The relative concentration of soluble salts in the soil affects
evaporation and indirectly soil temperature, the higher the salt concentration
the higher the temperature needed for evaporation, and salt concentration
affects biological activity and indirectly soil temperature.
● Soil moisture. Any change in temperature affects vapor pressure and viscosity
of water
● Microbial activity. The optimal temperature for microbes is 18-30oc, beyond
and below this range microbial activity decreases
● Soil development. Generally, higher temperature increases chemical reaction,
and therefore soil development
● Plant growth. Generally, increasing temperature increases shoot/root ratio
● Availability of plant nutrients. Soil water becomes more available to plants to
warm up, and as the water is being absorbed so are the readily available plant
nutrients.
Lesson 10:
Soil Color
Color is usually the first property that attracts attention in observing the soil hence
it is the most obvious characteristic of soil. Although color itself has little effect on the
behavior and use of soils, it does provide clues about processes that are or have been
operating in the soil, other soil properties, and conditions.
General Term
Soil color is a physical property of soil that focuses on how the human eye
interprets the wavelength of light that reflect or emit from the soil. It reflects the
composition as well as the past and present oxidation-reduction conditions of the soil. It
is generally determined by coatings of very fine particles of humified organic matter
(dark), iron oxides (yellow, brown, orange, and red), manganese oxides (black), and
others, or it may be due to the color of the parent rock. It is usually determined visually
by measurement of hue, the brightness of the reflected light (value); and saturation
(chroma).
Here are some basic terms that are used on describing color:
1. Achromatic. Absence of color.
2. Chromatic. Presence of color.
3. Contrast. The degree of difference between tones.
4. Gradient. An increase or decrease in the magnitude of colors observed in
passing from one point or moment to another.
5. Lightness. The quality of being pale in color.
6. Saturation. The intensity of the color is expressed as the degree to which it
differs from white.
Soil color can be described in two manners: subjective and objective description.
Subjective description represents the perception of the observer’s eye on the soil color, for
example, light brown, or dark gray. While the objective description is represented by the
Munsell color system, where the soil color is measured by how much hue, value, and
chroma are on the soil, for example, 7.5YR 4/6.
Hues of Munsell color system
Munsell color system

The Munsell color system is the method of designating colors based on a color
arrangement scheme. It is a means to visually identify and match color using a scientific
approach. It defines colors by measured scales of hue, value, and chroma, which
correspond respectively to dominant wavelength, brightness, and strength or purity. The

system is used internationally for specifying opaque colors of dyed or pigmented surfaces.
Hue
The hue is a measure of the chromatic composition of light that reaches the eye.
The Munsell system is based on five principal hues: red (R), yellow (Y), green (G), blue
(B), and purple (P). Five intermediate hues representing midpoints between each pair of
principal hues complete the 10 major hue names used to describe the notation. The
intermediate hues are yellow-red (YR), green-yellow (GY), blue-green (BG), purple-blue
(PB), and red-purple (RP) (Figure 9.9.1).
Each of the 10 major hues is divided into 4 segments (2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10) of equal
visual steps, which are designated by numerical values applied as prefixes to the symbol
for the hue name.
Value
The value indicates the degree of lightness or darkness of color to a neutral
grayscale. The value extends from pure black (0) to pure white (10). The value notation is
a measure of the amount of light that reaches the eye under standard lighting conditions.
Lighter colors are indicated by numbers between 5 and 10; darker colors are indicated by
numbers from 5 to 0. Gray is perceived as about halfway between black and white and has
a value notation of 5.
Chroma
Chroma is the relative purity or strength of the spectral color. It indicates the
degree of saturation of neutral gray by the spectral color. The scales of chroma for soils
extend from 0 (for neutral colors) to 8 (for colors with the strongest expression). The color
chips are arranged horizontally by increasing chroma from left to right on the soil-color
chart.
Colors with zero chroma are achromatic (neutral). They have no hue and no
chroma but range in value from black (N 2.5/) to white (N 8/). An example of a notation
for a neutral (achromatic) color is N 5/ (gray). The color 10YR 5/1 is also called gray
because the hue is hardly perceptible at such low chroma.
Color name
The names for soil colors are used to describe colors of similar hue, value, and
chroma. These are determined through the use of the soil color chart.
Soil color book

Of all Munsell color charts, Munsell soil color charts are the ones used to measure
soil color which allows fairly precise observation of the three-color attributes (hue, value,
and chroma). The soil color book, which is made up of these charts, only contains those
commonly found in soils, representing only part of the entire visible spectrum. These
colors include red, yellow-red, yellow, and gley.
Each page of the color book (representing each hue from 10R to 5Y and gley colors)
is set up as a matrix or grid filled with color chips, with value on the y-axis (dark to light
from bottom to top), and chroma on the x-axis (dull to bright from left to right). Here are
some unique qualities of the Munsell soil color chart:
● 10R is the reddest color of the soil
● 2.5 is the lowest and darkest color value
● 8 is the highest and lightest color value
● 8 is the most intense color (highest chroma)
● Few color charts include 2 pages of gley colors.
Soil color determination

The quality and intensity of the light source affect the amount and quality of the
light reflected. The visual impression of color from the standard color chips is accurate
only under standard conditions of light intensity and quality. Here are the guidelines for
recording soil color:
● Color determination may be inaccurate early in the morning or late in the
evening. When the sun is low in the sky or the atmosphere is smoky, the light
reaching the sample and the light reflected is redder. Colors also appear
different in the subdued light of a cloudy day than in bright sunlight.
● If artificial light is used, for color determinations in an office, the light source
must be as near the white light of midday as possible. With practice,
compensation can be made for the differences. The intensity of incidental light
is especially critical when matching soil to chips of low chroma and low value.
● The roughness of its surface affects the light reflected. The roughness of the
reflecting surface affects the amount of reflected light, especially if the
incidental light falls at an acute angle. The incidental light should be as near as
possible at a right angle. For crushed samples, the surface is smoothed and the
state is recorded as “dry, crushed, and smoothed.
● The moisture content of the sample affects the color. Wet samples become
darker colors and too-dry samples become light colors. Hence, it is
recommended to measure the color during in-field dry and moist conditions.
Color nomenclature
The nomenclature for soil color consists of two complementary systems: (1) color
names; and (2) the Munsell notation of color. The Munsell notation is composed of hue,
value, and chroma. The hue notation of color indicates its relation to red, yellow, green,
blue, and purple; the value notation indicates its lightness, and the chroma notation
indicates its strength (saturation of color).
In writing the Munsell notation, the order is hue, value, and chroma with a space
between the hue letter and the succeeding value number, and a diagonal between the two
numbers for value and chroma. For example, Yellowish-brown 10YR 5/4.
Soil color pigments

Soil color is usually due to 3 main pigments: black, red, and white. Black pigments
are mostly from organic matter, reds are from iron and aluminum oxides and whites are
from silicates and salt.
Color can be used as a clue to the mineral content of the soil. Iron minerals, by far,
provide the most and the greatest variety of pigments in earth and soil (Figure 9.9.2).
Black
Organic matter gives off a lower color value to the soil resulting in the melanization
of soil. Melanization is a process of soil darkening due to the addition of soil organic
matter. Hence, black soil is often high in organic matter which is mostly present in organic
soils. It often has slow drainage, moderate water-logging potential with low leaching of
nutrients, and medium nitrogen loss. This color is mostly found in the O horizon. Soil
with swelling and cracking minerals often also has a blackish color.
Brown
Brown soils are mineral soil that often has moderate to high levels of organic
matter. This color is mostly found in the A horizon with illuviated humus (Ah). These soils
have well-drained to moderate drainage and low water-logging potential. Also, this soil
color is often a product of braunification, a form of pedogenesis where iron and

aluminum released from minerals produce reddish-brown to brownish soil.
Red
Iron gives off a reddish hue in soil, resulting from the pedogenesis called
ferrugation (soil becoming red) and rubification (dark red). Hence, red soils are often
seen in soils with high iron and aluminum oxide. This soil color is mostly developed in a
warm, temperate, moist climate under deciduous or mixed forests and has thin organic
and organic-mineral layers overlying a yellowish-brown leached layer resting on an
illuvial red layer. They are usually poor growing soils, low in nutrients and humus, highly
acidic, and difficult to cultivate.
Possible mineral content of the following soil color
Yellow
Most of the yellow soils are influenced by the presence of iron in the soil. It often
has poorer drainage than red soils. It also has iron compounds in these soils but a
hydrated form (ferric hydroxide) and therefore does not produce the 'rusty' color. This
soil is well-drained, low to medium in water-logging potential, and has medium to low
organic matter.
White
The presence and absence of salts and other cations in the soil can influence the
color. White soil is influenced by calcium and magnesium carbonates, gypsum, or other
more soluble salts. Also, this soil color is often a product of calcification, a soil process in
which the surface soil is supplied with calcium. The higher color value can also be brought
by the increase of dissolved salts in the soil solution (also called salinization). Salts in the
soil have an important effect on the functions and management.
In similar color values, white soil can also be found on the E horizon. But instead
of an increase of cation, this horizon is white due to the soil process called leucinization,
the paling of soil horizons by the disappearance of dark organic materials either through
transformation to light-colored ones. These soils are often referred to as bleached or
washed out. The iron and manganese particles have been leached out due to high amounts
of rainfall or drainage.
Gley
The gley colors consist of neutral colors (white to black), and yellow, green-yellow,
green, blue-green, blue, and purple-blue in their lowest chroma (1, but sometimes 2
especially for G).
Bluish grey soils can be found in the subsurface horizon mainly with high gleying
(Btg). These soils are associated with very poor drainage or waterlogging. The lack of air
in these soils provides conditions for iron and manganese to form compounds that give
these soils their color.
Pure blue soils are rare. These soils are developed from high copper minerals called
azurite or due to the increase of blue-green algae. A purple or purplish-black soil color
has probably been affected by manganese oxides and glauconite for green.
Color mottling
Mottling (mottles, mottled) refers to secondary soil colors not associated with
compositional properties. Redoximorphic features are a type of mottle associated with
wetness. Lithochromic mottles are a type of mottling associated with variations of color
due to weathering of parent materials.
Importance
Here is the importance of soil color:
1. Soil color can indicate the depth of the existing water table based on the color
patterns of different mineral types that form in variable wet conditions.
2. Soil color can predict the composition of the soil and give clues to the conditions
of the soil.
3. Soil color can identify the specific soil horizons which are based on horizontal
bands of color in the soil.
4. Soil color can indicate the development and distribution of color in soil results
from chemical and biological weathering, especially redox reactions. As the
primary minerals in soil parent material weather.
5. Soil color can allow us to know some of its most important characteristics, such
as mineral composition, age, and soil processes (chemical alteration, carbonate
accumulation, the presence of humified organic matter, etc.).
6. Soil color tells us stories of how the soil formed.

3.0 Soil Physics

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3.0 Soil Physics

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SOIL SCIENCE & GEOLOGY SOIL PHYSICS

Hence, this chapter will be divided into four (4) parts:

Three Phase System

Three phases of soil

Soil Physical Components

The comparison between atmospheric air and soil air

Soil Mass-Volume Parameters

The mass-volume relationship of soil

For a comparison of these three:

Visibility Individual grains are Individual grains can Individual particles

Texture It feels gritty when It feels smooth, silky, It feels sticky.

Structure Individual grains are Does not aggregate. It coheres in a hard

Water Low water-holding Can retain water. Have a tremendous

Nutrients Low nutrients are Rapid enough to Have rapid release of

Drainage Drain rapidly and Capable of draining Have slow drainage

Soil Texture Determination

Feel and Roll Method

Size limit between sand and silt – 0.02 mm

The hydrometer measures the number of particles in suspension. And according

Soil Texture Triangle

Soil texture triangle

Soil Texture Classes and Subclasses

General soil texture groups

Medium textured Very fine sandy loam, loam, silt

Moderately fine- Clay loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay

Clayey soil materials Fine-textured Sandy clay, silty clay, clay

Coarse Textured Soil

Terms for coarse fragments

Nonflat 2-76 mm diameter Gravel Gravelly

20–76 mm diameter Coarse gravel Coarse gravelly

76–250 mm diameter Cobbles Cobbly

250–600 mm diameter Stone Stony

> 600 mm diameter Boulder Bouldery

Flat 2-150 mm long Channers Channery

380-600 mm long Stones Stony

> 600 mm long Boulders Bouldery

management. It is important to not only consider the total amount of rock

The adjective used for rock fragments

If GR ≥ 1.5 CB + If CB ≥ 1.5 ST If ST ≥ 1.5 BY If ST < 1.5 BY

≥ 15 < 35 Gravelly Cobbly Stony Bouldery

≥ 35 < 60 Very gravelly Very cobbly Very stony Very bouldery

≥ 60 < 90 Extremely Extremely Extremely Extremely

≥ 90 Gravel Cobbles Stones Boulders

Specific Surface Area

Soil textural class and its surface area

Water Holding Capacity

Plasticity and Stickiness

Cementing/binding agents include the following:

Polysaccharides and polyuronides which are synthesized by microorganisms and

Forms and Shape

Unstructured soil has no formal organization or structure. This includes single-

The different forms and shapes of soil aggregate

There are two types of spheroidal structures: granular and crumb.

In prismatic, peds are vertically oriented, pillar-shaped, with accommodation

Wetting and Drying

A well-developed structure is especially important for fine-textured soils. A good

On the other hand, poor soil structure is characterized by massive or compacted

Deteriorated soil structure is indicated by increasing bulk density value, declining

Particle density: ρs = Ms/Vs

Soil constituents and their density

Wet Bulk Density

Dry Specific Volume

Controlled by the fabric, or arrangement, of the soil particles, also known as

Common non-matrix pore shapes are the following: