EVA PROJECT

INTRODUCTION

Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids,

and organisms that together support life. Earth's body of soil,
called the pedosphere, has four important functions:

 as a medium for plant growth

 as a means of water storage, supply and purification
 as a modifier of Earth's atmosphere
 as a habitat for organisms
All of these functions, in their turn, modify the soil and its
properties.
Soil is also commonly referred to as earth or dirt; some
scientific definitions distinguish dirt from soil by restricting the
former term specifically to displaced soil.
The pedosphere interfaces with the lithosphere,
the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere.
 The term pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil,
translates to ground stone in the sense fundamental stone,
from the ancient Greek πέδον 'ground, earth'.
Soil consists of a solid phase of minerals and organic matter
(the soil matrix), as well as a porous phase that
holds gases (the soil atmosphere) and water (the soil
solution). Accordingly, soil scientists can envisage soils as a
three-state system of solids, liquids, and gases.
Soil is a product of several factors: the influence
of climate, relief (elevation, orientation, and slope of terrain),
organisms, and the soil's parent materials (original minerals)
interacting over time.
 It continually undergoes development by way of numerous
physical, chemical and biological processes, which
include weathering with associated erosion. Given its
complexity and strong internal connectedness, soil
ecologists regard soil as an ecosystem.
Most soils have a dry bulk density (density of soil taking into
account voids when dry) between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm3, while the
soil particle density is much higher, in the range of 2.6 to
2.7 g/cm3.
 Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than
the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic, although
fossilized soils are preserved from as far back as the Archean.
Soil science has two basic branches of study: edaphology and
pedology. Edaphology studies the influence of soils on living
things.
 Pedology focuses on the formation, description (morphology),
and classification of soils in their natural environment.
 In engineering terms, soil is included in the broader concept of
regolith, which also includes other loose material that lies
above the bedrock, as can be found on the Moon and on
other celestial objects.

PROCESS

Soil functions as a major component of the Earth's ecosystem.

The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by
the processes carried out in the soil, with effects ranging
from ozone depletion and global warming to rainforest
destruction and water pollution.
With respect to Earth's carbon cycle, soil acts as an
important carbon reservoir, and it is potentially one of the most
reactive to human disturbance and climate change.
As the planet warms, it has been predicted that soils will add
carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to
increased biological activity at higher temperatures, a positive
feedback (amplification). This prediction has, however, been
questioned on consideration of more recent knowledge on soil
carbon turnover.
Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for soil
organisms, a recycling system for nutrients and organic wastes,
a regulator of water quality, a modifier of atmospheric
composition, and a medium for plant growth, making it a
critically important provider of ecosystem services.
 Since soil has a tremendous range of
available niches and habitats, it contains a prominent part of
the Earth's genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions
of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly
microbial and largely still unexplored.
 Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms
per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 107 prokaryotic
organisms per milliliter (gram) of seawater. Organic carbon held
in soil is eventually returned to the atmosphere through the
process of respiration carried out by heterotrophic organisms,
but a substantial part is retained in the soil in the form of soil
organic matter; tillage usually increases the rate of soil
respiration, leading to the depletion of soil organic matter.
Since plant roots need oxygen, aeration is an important
characteristic of soil. This ventilation can be accomplished via
networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and
hold rainwater making it readily available for uptake by plants.
Since plants require a nearly continuous supply of water, but
most regions receive sporadic rainfall, the water-holding
capacity of soils is vital for plant survival.
Soils can effectively remove impurities, kill disease agents, and
degrade contaminants, this latter property being called natural
attenuation. Typically, soils maintain a net absorption
of oxygen and methane and undergo a net release of carbon
dioxide and nitrous oxide.
 Soils offer plants physical support, air, water, temperature
moderation, nutrients, and protection from toxins. Soils provide
readily available nutrients to plants and animals by converting
dead organic matter into various nutrient forms.

COMPOSITION
A typical soil is about 50% solids (45% mineral and 5% organic
matter), and 50% voids (or pores) of which half is occupied by
water and half by gas. The percent soil mineral and organic
content can be treated as a constant (in the short term), while
the percent soil water and gas content is considered highly
variable whereby a rise in one is simultaneously balanced by a
reduction in the other.
The pore space allows for the infiltration and movement of air
and water, both of which are critical for life existing in soil.
Compaction, a common problem with soils, reduces this space,
preventing air and water from reaching plant roots and soil
organisms.
Given sufficient time, an undifferentiated soil will evolve a soil
profile which consists of two or more layers, referred to as soil
horizons. These differ in one or more properties such as in
their texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency,
temperature, color, and reactivity.
The horizons differ greatly in thickness and generally lack
sharp boundaries; their development is dependent on the type
of parent material, the processes that modify those parent
materials, and the soil-forming factors that influence those
processes. The biological influences on soil properties are
strongest near the surface, while the geochemical influences on
soil properties increase with depth.
Mature soil profiles typically include three basic master
horizons: A, B, and C. The solum normally includes the A and B
horizons. The living component of the soil is largely confined to
the solum, and is generally more prominent in the A horizon. 
It has been suggested that the pedon, a column of soil
extending vertically from the surface to the underlying parent
material and large enough to show the characteristics of all its
horizons, could be subdivided in the humipedon (the living part,
where most soil organisms are dwelling, corresponding to
the humus form), the copedon (in intermediary position, where
most weathering of minerals takes place) and the lithopedon (in
contact with the subsoil).
The soil texture is determined by the relative proportions of the
individual particles of sand, silt, and clay that make up the soil.
The interaction of the individual mineral particles with organic
matter, water, gases via biotic and abiotic processes causes
those particles to flocculate (stick together) to
form aggregates or peds. Where these aggregates can be
identified, a soil can be said to be developed, and can be
described further in terms of color, porosity, consistency,
reaction (acidity), etc.
Water is a critical agent in soil development due to its
involvement in the dissolution, precipitation, erosion, transport,
and deposition of the materials of which a soil is
composed. The mixture of water and dissolved or suspended
materials that occupy the soil pore space is called the soil
solution.
Since soil water is never pure water, but contains hundreds of
dissolved organic and mineral substances, it may be more
accurately called the soil solution. Water is central to
the dissolution, precipitation and leaching of minerals from
the soil profile. Finally, water affects the type of vegetation that
grows in a soil, which in turn affects the development of the
soil, complex feedback which is exemplified in the dynamics of
banded vegetation patterns in semi-arid regions.
Soils supply plants with nutrients, most of which are held in
place by particles of clay and organic matter (colloids) The
nutrients may be adsorbed on clay mineral surfaces, bound
within clay minerals (absorbed), or bound within organic
compounds as part of the living organisms or dead soil organic
matter. These bound nutrients interact with soil water
to buffer the soil solution composition (attenuate changes in the
soil solution) as soils wet up or dry out, as plants take up
nutrients, as salts are leached, or as acids or alkalis are added.
Plant nutrient availability is affected by soil pH, which is a
measure of the hydrogen ion activity in the soil solution. Soil pH
is a function of many soil forming factors, and is generally lower
(more acid) where weathering is more advanced.
Most plant nutrients, with the exception of nitrogen, originate
from the minerals that make up the soil parent material. Some
nitrogen originates from rain as dilute nitric
acid and ammonia, but most of the nitrogen is available in soils
as a result of nitrogen fixation by bacteria. Once in the soil-plant
system, most nutrients are recycled through living organisms,
plant and microbial residues (soil organic matter), mineral-
bound forms, and the soil solution.
Both living soil organisms (microbes, animals and plant roots)
and soil organic matter are of critical importance to this
recycling, and thereby to soil formation and soil
fertility. Microbial soil enzymes may release nutrients from
minerals or organic matter for use by plants and other
microorganisms, sequester (incorporate) them into living cells,
or cause their loss from the soil by volatilisation (loss to the
atmosphere as gases) or leaching.

FORMATION

Soil is formed by the process of ‘weathering’ of rocks, that is,

disintegration and decomposition of rocks and mineral at or
near the earth’s surface through the actions of natural or
mechanical and chemical agents into smaller grains.

Factors affecting formation of soil may be atmospheric, such as

changes in temperatures and pressure; erosion and
transportation by wind, water and glaciers; chemical action
such as crystal growth, oxidation, hydration, carbonation and
leaching by water, especially rainwater, with time.

So in general, formation of soil takes place by two methods:

1. Physical disintegration of rocks

2. Chemical decomposition of rocks

Physical disintegration

Physical disintegration or mechanical weathering of rocks occur

due to the following physical processes:

1. Temperature changes: Different minerals of a rock

have different coefficients of thermal expansion.
Unequal expansion and contraction of these minerals
occur due to temperature changes. When the stresses
induced due to such changes are repeated many
times, the particles get detached from the rocks and
the soil formation takes place.
2. Wedging action of ice: Water in the pores and minute
cracks of rocks gets frozen in very cold climates As
the volume of ice formed is more than that of water,
expansion occurs. Rocks get broken into pieces when
large stresses develop in the cracks due to wedging
action of the ice formed.
3. Spreading of roots of plants: As the roots of trees and
shrubs grow in the cracks and fissures of the rocks,
forces act on the rock. The segments of the are forced
apart and disintegration of rocks occurs.
4. Abrasion: As water, wind and glaciers move over the
surface of rock, abrasion and scouring takes place. It
results in the formation of soil.

In all processes of physical integration, there is no change in

the chemical composition. The soil formed has the properties of
the parent rock. Course grained soils, such as gravel and sand,
are formed by the process of physical disintegration.
Chemical disintegration

When chemical decomposition or chemical weathering of rocks

takes place, original rock mineral are transformed into new
minerals by chemical reactions. The soils formed do not have
the properties of the parent rock. The following chemical
processes generally occur in nature.

1. Hydration: In hydration, water combines with the rock

minerals and results in the formation of a new
chemical compound. The chemical reaction causes a
change in volume and decomposition of rock into
small particles.
2. Carbonation: It is a type of chemical decomposition
in which carbon dioxide in the atmosphere combines
with water to form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid
reacts chemically with rocks and causes their
decomposition.
3. Oxidation: Oxidation occurs when oxygen ions
combine with mineral in rocks. Oxidation results in
decomposition of rocks. Oxidation of rocks is
somewhat similar to rusting of steel.
4. Solution: Some of the rocks minerals form a solution
with water when they get dissolved in water. Chemical
reaction takes place in the solution and the formation
of soil takes place.
5. Hydrolysis: It is a chemical process in which water
gets dissociated into H+ and OH– ions. The hydrogen
cations replace the metallic ions such as calcium,
sodium and potassium in rock minerals and soils are
formed with a new chemical decomposition.

Chemical decomposition of rocks results in formation of clay

minerals. These clay minerals impart plastic properties of soil.
Clayey soils are formed by chemical composition.
 IMPORTANCE OF SOIL

1. Soil is the backbone of our food security. Without healthy

soils, farmers wouldn’t be able to provide us with feed, fibre,
food, and fuel.
2. Just like how a foundation for a home is critical, healthy soils
act as a foundation for plants by supporting plant roots and
keeping plants upright for growth.
3. Soils act as a pantry for plants, storing and cycling essential
nutrients and minerals that plants need to grow.
4. Soils store water for plants. In fact, according to the USDA,
“every 1% increase in organic matter results in as much as
25,000 gallons of available soil water per acre.” That’s a lot of
water!
5. Soils maintain adequate aeration for plants, providing oxygen
for microbes, insects and plant roots.
6. Soils are habitats for beneficial soil microbes; these
organisms are nature’s hidden helpers. They form synergistic
relationships with plants to protect them from stress and
provide them with nutrients, among other tasks. According to
the USDA, “one teaspoon of healthy soil contains, 100 million-
to-1 billion individual bacteria alone.”
7. Soils are homes for many other organisms like insects that
lay and hatch eggs in the soil.
8. Soils filter surface water of dust, chemicals and other
contaminants. This is why underground water is some of the
cleanest sources of water. In fact, according to Soils.Org,
“through natural processes, such as soil absorption, chemical
filtration, and nutrient cycle, the Catskill Watershed provides
New York City with clean water at a cost of $1-to-1.5 billion,
much less than the $6-to-8 billion one-time cost of constructing
a water filtration plant.”
9. Healthy soils help protect the planet from climate change.
According to Columbia University’s Earth Institute, “soils
remove about 25 percent of the world’s fossil fuel emissions
each year."
10. Healthy soils provide farmers with better crop yields and
protect plants from stress.
11. When it comes to human health, almost all of the antibiotics
we take to help fight infection were obtained by soil microbes.
12. Healthy soils protect the land from erosion.  
13. Soil is a non-renewable natural resource. According to
the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), it can take
hundreds to thousands of years to form a centimetre of soil.
But, that single centimetre of soil can be lost in a single year
due to erosion.
14. 11% of the total U.S. employment works in the agricultural
and food sectors - that’s 2.16 million full- and part-time people
working on our soils each day.
15. Soil is made up of 45% minerals, 25% water, 5% organic
matter and 25% air.
16. Soil acts as a holding facility for solid waste.
17. Soils help regulate the Earth’s temperature.
18. Healthy soils mitigate the impacts of extreme weather
events.
19. Archaeologists have determined that many sophisticated
civilizations such as the Mayans and the Harappan, fell
because they mismanaged their soils.
20. According to Soils.Org, “about 70% of the weight of a
textbook or glossy paged magazine is soil”
21. Putting clay soil on your face as a “mud mask” cleanses the
skin’s pores.
22. According to the World Future Council, “soils help control
weeds, plant pests, and disease.”
23. The best China dishes are made from soil.
24. Soil is the foundation of our buildings, roads, houses, and
schools. In fact, soil affects how buildings are made.
25. Soil holds Earth’s history, containing artifacts - from
dinosaurs to ancient human civilizations - from our Earth’s past.
There’s a lot of history stored in soils!

SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion is the natural process in which the topsoil of a field

is carried away by physical sources such as wind and water.
In this process, the soil particles are loosened or washed away
in the valleys, oceans, rivers, streams or faraway lands. This
has been worsening due to human activities such as agriculture
and deforestation.
Soil erosion is a continuous process that occurs either slowly or
at an alarming rate. It results in a continuous loss of topsoil,
ecological degradation, soil collapse, etc.

Causes of Soil Erosion

Following are the important causes of soil erosion:

Rainfall and Flooding

Higher intensity of rainstorm is the main cause of soil erosion.
Four types of soil erosion are caused by rainfall:
  Rill erosion
 Gully erosion

 Sheet erosion

 Splash erosion

The raindrops disperse the soil, which is then washed away

into the nearby streams and rivers. Regions with very heavy
and frequent rainfall face a large amount of soil loss. The
flowing water during floods also erodes a lot of soil by creating
potholes, rock-cut basins, etc.

Agriculture
The farming practices are the major cause of soil erosion. The
agricultural activities disturb the ground. The trees are cleared
and the land is ploughed to sow new seeds. Since most of the
crops are grown during the spring season, the land lies fallow
during winters. Most of the soil is eroded during winters.
Also, the tyres of tractors make grooves on the land, making a
natural pathway for water. Fine soil particles are eroded by
wind.

Grazing
The grazing animals feed on the grasses and remove the
vegetation from the land. Their hooves churn up the soil. They
also pull-out plants by their roots. This loosens the soil and
makes it more prone to erosion.

Logging and Mining

A large number of trees are cut down to carry out the logging
process. Trees hold the soil firmly. The canopy of the trees
protects the soil from heavy rainfall. The leaf litter that protects
the soil from erosion, is also lost during logging.
Mining activities also disturb the land and leave the soil more
prone to erosion.

Construction
The construction of roads and buildings exposes the soil to
erosion. The forests and grasslands are cleared for
construction purposes, which exposes the soil making it
vulnerable to erosion.

Rivers and Streams

The flowing rivers and streams carry away the soil particles
leading to a V-shaped erosion activity.

Heavy Winds
During dry weather or in the semi-arid regions, the minute soil
particles are carried away by the wind to faraway lands. This
degrades the soil and results in desertification.

Effects of Soil Erosion

The major effects of soil erosion include:

Loss of Arable Land

Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of the soil. This layer
is rich in the essential nutrients required by the plants and the
soil. The degraded soil does not support crop production and
leads to low crop productivity.

Clogging of Waterways
The agricultural soil contains pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers,
and several other chemicals. This pollutes the water bodies
where the soil flows.
The sediments accumulate in the water and raise the water
levels resulting in flooding.

Air Pollution
The dust particles merge in the air, resulting in air pollution.
Some of the toxic substances such as pesticides and petroleum
can be extremely hazardous when inhaled. The dust plumes
from the arid and semi-arid regions cause widespread pollution
when the winds move.
Desertification
Soil erosion is a major factor for desertification. It transforms
the habitable regions into deserts. Deforestation and
destructive use of land worsens the situation. This also leads to
loss of biodiversity, degradation of the soil, and alteration in the
ecosystem.

Destruction of Infrastructure
The accumulation of soil sediments in dams and along the
banks can reduce their efficiency. Thus, it affects infrastructural
projects such as dams, embankments, and drainage.

WHY DO WE NEED TO CONSERVE SOIL?

Soil is an essential contributortoplant’s health. Also, it is home

to millions of useful micro and macro-organisms which are
beneficial for plants. Not only this, the soil is also a reservoir of
minerals, liquids, and gases essential to maintain a plant’s
wellbeing. Soil has a vital influence on the atmosphere as well.
It acts as a natural purification system for the world’s water
supply. Therefore, it is crucial to maintain soil biodiversity.

Soil is a natural home to a plethora of living creatures or

microorganisms. Microfauna, and flora as well as macroflora
depend on soil for sustenance.

In other words, plants, animals, and soil share a symbiotic

relationship.

Why Soil Biodiversity is Important?

Soil biodiversity has a critical role to play in the environment. It

is equally crucial to conserve soil biodiversity to keep a healthy
balance between the three, viz., plants, animals, and soil.

Benefits of Soil Biodiversity

  Improved and enhanced soil porosity
 Better habitat that promotes healthy root growth
 Increases and optimum water storage and absorption
 Mitigation of destructive organisms that results in higher
and better yield

Soil Microbes help in Antibiotics formation 

Microbes found in the soil are responsible for developing most

antibiotics, hence have vital significance in the field of medicine
and biology. Bacillus species is the most predominant soil
bacteria as it is highly resistant to endospore formation and
produces vital antibiotics such as bacitracin, polymyxin, etc. In
this way soil accommodates the formation of various antibiotics
and has a crucial role to play in society.

Threat to Soil Biodiversity

Climate change and biodiversity loss due to excessive human

activities is a significant threat to soil biodiversity. Along with
this, reduction of forests for human settlement and agricultural
activities also has a huge negative impact on soil biodiversity.

Declining soil’s organic matter, soil contamination, soil

compaction, and soil salinization are all examples of human
interventions causing a threat to soil biodiversity.

For instance, the decline in the organic matter of soil is a

general effect of tillage agriculture. Similarly, agriculture waste,
industrial waste, transport, and management lead to soil
contamination in both, rural and urban soils. Soil salinization
occurs due to over-abstraction of groundwater, urbanization,
seawater intrusion, municipal wastewater, excessive fertilizer
use, and even leads to soil erosion.

SOIL CONSERVATION
Soil conservation is the prevention of loss of the top most layer
of the soil from erosion or prevention of reduced fertility caused
by over usage, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil
contamination.

Slash-and-burn and other unsustainable methods
of subsistence farming are practiced in some lesser developed
areas. A sequel to the deforestation is typically large
scale erosion, loss of soil nutrients and sometimes
total desertification.
Techniques for improved soil conservation include crop
rotation, cover crops, conservation tillage and
planted windbreaks, affect both erosion and fertility. When
plants die, they decay and become part of the soil. Code 330
defines standard methods recommended by the U.S. Natural
Resources Conservation Service.
Farmers have practiced soil conservation for millennia. In
Europe, policies such as the Common Agricultural Policy are
targeting the application of best management practices such as
reduced tillage, winter cover crops, plant residues and grass
margins in order to better address the soil
conservation. Political and economic action is further required
to solve the erosion problem.
A simple governance hurdle concerns how we value the land
and this can be changed by cultural adaptation. Soil carbon is
a carbon sink, playing a role in climate change mitigation.

METHODS OF SOIL CONSERVATION

1. Agronomic practices:

In soil and water conservation programmes, the

agronomical practices are counted as second line of
defence the first being mechanical or engineering
 measures which are employed to arrest the soil erosion
immediately. The role of agronomic measure is more
economical long-lasting and effective. Always it is
advisable to used but when its use is either inadequate to
want to achieve the goal of erosion control then use of
mechanical measures to control erosion is recommended.
The agronomical measures are referred by the practices of
growing vegetables on mild sloppy banks to cover them and
to control the erosion from there in living vegetation above
the soil surface dissipates the cover power of  agents either
they are water or wind In case of water erosion it affects by
several ways such as by enhancing infiltration rate and
reducing together and thereby reducing runoff velocity to
scour the soil particles screening the eroded particles to
reach them into the channels or reservoirs; by dissipating the
kinetic energy of falling raindrops and thus reducing the
splash erosion. The effect of vegetation on wind erosion is
also significant as it directly makes a hinderance in blowing
path and thus deflecting the wind current at some distance
away towards downstream side. The wind – strip cropping is
a well-known agronomical practice complied for controlling
the wind erosion in wind erosion susceptible areas.
The role of agronomical measures in achieve of soil & water
conservation, has immense importance, perhaps much more
than the others. It can be explained by considering the
Universal Soil Loss Equation (A = R K L S C P) in which
agronomical practices reflect the factor of crop management
(C). The other factors such as R & K are the natural factor;
we do not have any control on them. The L S and P factors
may have value as I under worst conditions; although these
can be reduced maximum up to 0.5 by applying an ideal soil
and water conservation measures. The factor ‘C’ which is
crop management factor has value as I for worst conditions,
but it can be reduced up to 0.02. At this small value of C, the
soil loss can be minimized up to one – fifteenth which is
about 10.25 times more than the other factors. Looking this
 important effect of agronomical measures on soil loss, its
scope is assumed to be more dominating in soil and water
conservation programmes.
1. Contouring
2. Trip Cropping
3. Tillage Practices
These are the important agronomical practices employed for
controlling the soil erosion from sloppy areas. Basically, these
measures create an obstruction in flow path of surface runoff by
making the land surfaces rough due to channels ridges etc.
formed under them. Each of these measures also have a direct
relation with the infiltration rate and thereby presence of
moisture in the soil profile. Infiltration rate is an effective factor
in reducing the surface runoff and soil loss.

2. Contour farming:

contour farming, the practice of tilling sloped land along lines of

consistent elevation in order to conserve rainwater and to
reduce soil losses from surface erosion. These objectives are
achieved by means of furrows, crop rows, and wheel tracks
across slopes, all of which act as reservoirs to catch and retain
rainwater, thus permitting increased infiltration and
more uniform distribution of the water.
Contour farming has been practiced for centuries in parts of the
world where irrigation farming is important. Although in the
United States the technique was first practiced at the turn of the
19th century, straight-line planting in rows parallel to field
boundaries and regardless of slopes long remained the
prevalent method. Efforts by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service
to promote contouring in the 1930s as an essential part of
erosion control eventually led to its widespread adoption.
The practice has been proved to reduce fertilizer loss, power
and time consumption, and wear on machines, as well as to
increase crop yields and reduce erosion. Contour farming can
help absorb the impact of heavy rains, which in straight-line
planting often wash away topsoil. Contour farming is most
effective when used in conjunction with such practices as strip
cropping, terracing, and water diversion.

3. Mulching:

Mulch is defined as a coating material spread over the soil

surface (Patil et al., 2013). Mulching is the technique of
covering of the soil surface around the plants with an organic or
synthetic mulch to create favourable conditions for the plant
growth and proficient crop production.
Application areas of mulching
 In rainfed areas to conserve moisture
 In areas that need irrigation, Mulching reduces the frequency
of irrigation
 In greenhouses to maintain the soil temperature
 In areas with soil borne diseases, Mulching is need and
prevent soil erosion
 In lands where high value crops are being cultivated
Benefits of mulching:
 It helps with water conservation by preventing direct
evaporation of water from the soil, thereby reducing the need of
irrigation or water supply.
 Helps in weed control by cutting off the energy supply to the
weeds
 It helps to retain water in the soil and keeps it moist for a
longer period of time. It is also found to control the humidity
level within the plant root zone.
 It forms as substrate for the plant and its parts by preventing
flowers, fruits and other plant parts to get in direct contact with
the soil thereby improving their flower and fruit quality.
 It keeps the insect pests away from the plants because the
mulching film reflects light, thereby controlling the incidence of
pests.
 Mulch reflects a lot of the sun that otherwise heats the soil.
This keeps the soil cooler and helps prevent evaporation.
 Mulches spread over soil, prevents soil erosion, slow down
rainwater run-off, and increase the amount of water that soaks
into the soil.
 Organic mulches also improve the condition of the soil. As
these mulches slowly decompose, they provide organic matter
which helps keep the soil loose.
 Organic matter becomes food for the beneficial earthworms
and other soil micro-organisms in the soil and create a very
good porous soil. This improves root growth, increases the
infiltration of water, and also improves the water-holding
capacity of the soil.
 Decaying organic matter also becomes a source of plant
nutrients. It works as a heat and cold insulator by preventing
freezing of soil during winter and drying of soil in the summer
 Mulching reduces the salinity level of the soil
 It prevents the leaching of fertilizers from the soil
 Sometimes it helps with seed germination, early maturity and
higher production.
Apart from using high yielding varieties and good agricultural
practices, there is a need to utilize environmental/biological
energy for higher production. Mulching is one such process that
can help us in producing quality food in quantities. In the days
to come, farmers will make use of this innovative technique that
helps them conserve moisture, avoid weeds and improve soil
health tremendously while producing more. This will also go a
long way in the world achieving food security sustainably.

4. Crop rotations:

Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of different

types of crops in the same area across a sequence of
growing seasons. It reduces reliance on one set of nutrients,
pest and weed pressure, and the probability of developing
resistant pests and weeds.
Growing the same crop in the same place for many years in a
row, known as monocropping, gradually depletes the soil of
certain nutrients and selects for a highly competitive pest and
weed community. Without balancing nutrient use and
diversifying pest and weed communities, the productivity of
monocultures is highly dependent on external inputs.
Conversely, a well-designed crop rotation can reduce the need
for synthetic fertilizers and herbicides by better
using ecosystem services from a diverse set of crops.
Additionally, crop rotations can improve soil
structure and organic matter, which reduces erosion and
increases farm system resilience.
Agriculturalists have long recognized that suitable rotations —
such as planting spring crops for livestock in place of grains for
human consumption — make it possible to restore or to
maintain productive soils. Ancient Near Eastern farmers
practiced crop rotation in 6000 BC without understanding the
chemistry, alternately planting legumes and cereals.
Two-field systems
Under a two-field rotation, half the land was planted in a year,
while the other half lay fallow. Then, in the next year, the two
fields were reversed. In China both the two-field and three-field
system had been used since the Eastern Zhou period. From
the times of Charlemagne (died 814), farmers in Europe
transitioned from a two-field crop rotation to a three-field crop
rotation.
Three-field systems
From the end of the Middle Ages until the 20th century,
Europe's farmers practiced a three-field rotation, where
available lands were divided into three sections. One section
was planted in the autumn with rye or winter wheat, followed by
spring oats or barley; the second section grew crops such as
peas, lentils, or beans; and the third field was left fallow. The
three fields were rotated in this manner so that every three
years, one of the fields would rest and lie fallow. Under the two-
field system, if one has a total of 600 acres (2.4 km2) of fertile
land, one would only plant 300 acres. Under the new three-field
rotation system, one would plant (and therefore harvest) 400
acres. But the additional crops had a more significant effect
than mere quantitative productivity. Since the spring crops were
mostly legumes, they increased the overall nutrition of the
people of Northern Europe.
Four-field rotations
Farmers in the region of Washland (in present-day northern
Belgium) pioneered a four-field rotation in the early 16th
century, and the British agriculturist Charles Townshend (1674–
1738) popularised this system in the 18th century. The
sequence of four crops (wheat, turnips, barley and clover),
included a fodder crop and a grazing crop, allowing livestock to
be bred year-round. The four-field crop rotation became a key
development in the British Agricultural Revolution. The rotation
between arable and ley is sometimes called ley farming.
Modern developments
George Washington Carver (1860s–1943) studied crop-rotation
methods in the United States, teaching southern farmers to
rotate soil-depleting crops like cotton with soil-enriching crops
like peanuts and peas.
In the Green Revolution of the mid-20th century the traditional
practice of crop rotation gave way in some parts of the world to
the practice of supplementing the chemical inputs to the soil
through topdressing with fertilizers, adding (for
example) ammonium nitrate or urea and restoring soil
pH with lime. Such practices aimed to increase yields, to
prepare soil for specialist crops, and to reduce waste and
inefficiency by simplifying planting, harvesting, and irrigation.

5.Strip cropping:

Strip cropping is a method of farming which involves cultivating

a field partitioned into long, narrow strips which are alternated
in a crop rotation system. It is used when a slope is too steep or
when there is no alternative method of preventing soil erosion.
The most common crop choices for strip cropping are closely
sown crops such as hay, wheat, or other forages which are
alternated with strips of row crops, such
as corn, soybeans, cotton, or sugar beets. The forages serve
primarily as cover crops. In certain systems, strips in
particularly eroded areas are used to grow permanent
protective vegetation; in most systems, however, all strips are
alternated on an annual basis.

The growing of a cultivated crop (as corn) in strips alternating

with strips of a sod-forming crop (as hay) arranged to follow an
approximate contour of the land and minimize erosion.
Strip cropping helps to stop soil erosion by creating natural
dams for water, helping to preserve the strength of the soil.
Certain layers of plants will absorb minerals and water from the
soil more effectively than others. When water reaches the
weaker soil that lacks the minerals needed to make it stronger,
it normally washes it away. When strips of soil are strong
enough to slow down water from moving through them, the
weaker soil can't wash away like it normally would. Because of
this, farmland stays fertile much longer.
The term strip cropping also refers to a method of dry
farming sometimes used in areas including parts of the Great
Plains of the United States and the Prairies of Canada. To
accumulate moisture in these dry areas, cropland is periodically
left fallow. Typically, the fallow and planted areas are organized
in parallel long, narrow strips that are oriented normal to the
prevailing winds, in order to minimize the erosion of soil from
the bare fields.
Strip farming helps to prevent mass erosion by having the roots
of crops hold on to the soil to prevent it from being washed
away. In the midwestern US, prairie strips integrate "native
plant species into farm fields as contour buffers and edge-of-
field filters." Prairie strips attract pollinators, build soil health,
help prevent erosion, and provide wildlife habitat.

6.Contour strip cropping:

Contour strip cropping is the production of the ordinary farm

crops in long, relatively narrow strips of variable width on
•which dense erosion-control crops alternate with clean-tilled or
erosion-permitting crops placed crosswise of the line of slope
approximately on the contour. It is usually impossible to have
parallel strips with all the rows of a given strip exactly on the
level or true contour because of variations in the slope of the
land.
While it is desirable to follow the true contour, it is sometimes
permissible to deviate to some extent in order to make the
cultivated rows of uniform length and to avoid point rows. It has
been found in practice that if the soil is fairly permeable and the
deviation is slight and continues for only a hundred feet or less,
this deviation will cause no serious results.

7.Field strip cropping:

Field strip cropping is the production of the regular farm crops

m more or less uniform parallel strips laid out crosswise of the
general slope but not parallel to the true contour. This is a
modified form of contour strip cropping and is applicable to
uniform gradual slopes on soils which are resistant to erosion.
Field strip cropping is very simple and while not as effective as
contour strip cropping, can frequently be used in connection
with grassed waterways where the true contour cannot easily
be followed.
Field strip cropping is a modified form of contour strip cropping.
Areas laid out for field strip cropping are simply divided into
parallel strips across the general slope and may or may not be
on the contour. This is not a good system under some
conditions and may result in more harm than good if not
carefully watched, as water may have a tendency to
accumulate in low areas where no accumulation occurred when
the rows were run up and down the slopes. Natural or seeded
grassed waterways carefully maintained wherever rows tend to
collect water will do much to carry away any surplus water
accumulated by field strips, and under careful management no
trouble will result.

8.Agrostological measures:
The following are the important agrostological practices that
check soil erosion:
(i)Cultivation of grasses (ley farming).

(ii)Retiring the land.

(iii)Afforestation and Reforestation.

(iv)Checking of overgrazing.

(i)Cultivation of grasses (Ley farming):

This method consists in growing grasses in rotation with
agricultural crops. This practice improves the fertility of soil and
helps in binding of the soil, thus preventing the soil erosion.
This practice is recommended for Nilgiris and similar places
which are subjected to very severe soil erosion.

(ii) Retiring the land:

Areas subjected to heavy soil erosion should necessarily be put
under thick cover of grasses. Under favourable climatic
conditions grazing should also be allowed for short periods.
Researchers conducted at Solapur in Maharashtra have shown
that grasses have good soil binding capacity. In Nilgiri hills,
Tamil Nadu doobgrass (Cynodon dactylon), Dectylis glomerata,
Eragrostis amabitis and E. cerbula are proved to be most
effective in soil binding and in stabilizing the reserves of the
bench terrace and sodding water channels.

(iii) Afforestation and reforestation:

Afforestation means growing forests at places where there
were no forests before due to lack of trees or due to adverse
factors such as unstable soil, aridity, or swampiness.
Reforestation means replanting of forests at places where they
have been destroyed by uncontrolled forest fires, excessive
felling and lopping. Plantation of trees in short blocks is known
as a wind break and extensive plantation of trees is called
shelter belts.
Wind is a problem in dry areas. Soil erosion by wind can be
checked or reduced if the soil is covered by vegetation. Wind
breaks are planting of trees or other plants at right angles to
prevailing wind that protect bare soil from full force of wind.
Wind breaks reduce the velocity of wind, thereby decrease the
soil erosion. In some cases, rows of trees are angles to
prevailing wind. Wind break and shelter belt type of plantations
are being done in some regions of Uttar Pradesh where desert
is encroaching.

The plantation is usually done in two or three belts. Small sized

plants are planted on windward side and tall trees on leeward
side. Wind breaks and shelter belts reduce the wind velocity
considerably and also check the transport of lifted sand and soil
particles. Afforestation is the best means to check the soil
erosion.

9.Wind strip cropping:

Wind strip cropping, as previously defined, is the production of

the regular farm crops in long, relatively narrow, parallel strips,
placed crosswise of the direction of the prevailing wind without
regard to the contour of the land. This system is employed in
both the High Plains and the northern Great Plains, which are
subject to severe wind erosion and usually have scanty rainfall.
Its application, therefore, is somewhat limited. It is sometimes
modified by using vegetation or crops that are not a part of the
rotation or that may not be harvested. Sometimes Sudan grass
or some of the grain sorghums are planted in very wide rows on
land which later will be seeded solid to grass or small grain.
This gives protection from the wind until the regular crop
becomes established. In some areas of scant rainfall, where
summer farrow Is practised, strips of stubble, sweet clover,
Sudan grass, or stooling varieties of sorghum can be used in
alternate strips to break the force of wind, hold the snow and
otherwise protect the small grains during critical windy periods.
In most of the areas subject to wind erosion rainfall is light, and
moisture conservation is of primary importance. Much of the
limited rainfall occurs as cloudbursts in localized areas and
usually results in heavy run-off and severe soil losses. Rainfall
records indicate that the total annual precipitation is relatively
small. If all of It were retained in the soil for crop production it
would be insufficient for maximum yields. Since the need for
water conservation is urgent, farmers and agronomists favour
contour strip cropping, winch will save all the moisture and
possibly be just as effective in controlling wind erosion. The
increased growth of vegetation re- suiting from this extra water
would be an additional factor in preventing soil blowing.

10.Dry farming method:

Dryland farming and dry farming encompass

specific agricultural techniques for the non-irrigated cultivation
of crops. Dryland farming is associated with drylands, areas
characterized by a cool wet season (which charges the soil with
virtually all the moisture that the crops will receive prior to
harvest) followed by a warm dry season. They are also
associated with arid conditions, areas prone to drought and
those having scarce water resources.
Dryland farming has evolved as a set of techniques and
management practices used by farmers to continually adapt to
the presence or lack of moisture in a given crop cycle. In
marginal regions, a farmer should be financially able to survive
occasional crop failures, perhaps for several years in
succession. Survival as a dryland farmer requires careful
husbandry of the moisture available for the crop and aggressive
management of expenses to minimize losses in poor years.
Dryland farming involves the constant assessing of the amount
of moisture present or lacking for any given crop cycle and
planning accordingly. Dryland farmers know that to be
financially successful they have to be aggressive during the
good years in order to offset the dry years.
Dryland farming is dependent on natural rainfall, which can
leave the ground vulnerable to dust storms, particularly if poor
farming techniques are used or if the storms strike at a
particularly vulnerable time. The fact that a fallow period must
be included in the crop rotation means that fields cannot always
be protected by a cover crop, which might otherwise offer
protection against erosion.
Some of the theories of dryland farming developed in the late
19th and early 20th centuries claimed to be scientific but were
in reality pseudoscientific and did not stand up to empirical
testing. For example, it was alleged that tillage would seal in
moisture, but such "dust mulching" ideas are based on what
people imagine should happen, or have been told, rather than
what testing actually confirms. In actuality, it has been shown
that tillage increases water losses to evaporation. The
book Bad Land: An American Romance explores the effects
that this had on people who were encouraged to homestead in
an area with little rainfall; most smallholdings failed after
working miserably to cling on.
Dry farming depends on making the best use of the "bank" of
soil moisture that was created by winter rainfall. Some dry
farming practices include:

 Wider than normal spacing, to provide a larger bank of

moisture for each plant.
 Controlled Traffic.
 Minimal tilling of land.
 Strict weed control, to ensure that weeds do not
consume soil moisture needed by the cultivated plants.
  Cultivation of soil to produce a "dust mulch", thought to
prevent the loss of water through capillary action. This
practice is controversial, and is not universally
advocated.
 Selection of crops and cultivars suited for dry farming
practices.

11.Mechanical -Measures:

The above measures control erosion by good management

practices. Bunding, terracing, gully or nala control, and
construction of tanks and bandharas are mechanical measures
requiring engineering techniques and structures. They reduce
run off and impound water for longer time to help infiltration into
the soil. Their construction and design will depend upon rainfall,
soil slope and such other factors. These measures are costly
but if properly maintained will improve the land over a long
period of time.
Bunding:
i) Block bunding: Bunding for control of soil erosion and
conservation of surface run off was known to farmers for
centuries. It was not uncommon to find Tals i.e., big bunds
across large blocks of sloping lands. These bunds are
constructed of earth or stone or both, at a great cost, to
impound water and arrest soil washed from the fields lying
above. They are high and broad enough to withstand the force
of water from the catchments. Water is let out at the end of the
monsoon and land which has received fertile silt is sown with
crops. Such type of big bloods bunds are not constructed now
as contour bunding has been taken up on catchments basis.
ii) Contour bunding: It consists of construction of a series of
earthen bunds of suitable sizes along contours at a lateral
distance of every 60 mm or a fall of 1 to 1.5 m. The slope of
land is thus broken into smaller and more level compartments
which hold soil as well as rain water. It has been estimated that
about 75 million hectares of land i.e., about one fourth of the
common land surfaces suffering from soil erosion. In
Maharashtra State, the problem is more acute and it is
estimated that out of 186 lakh hectares about 144 lakh hectares
require bunding. The planning Commission has, therefore laid
great stress on contour bunding programme, because bunding
alone has been found to increase crop yield by 20 to 30 p.c.
The size, cross- section and interbond spacing depend upon
the nature of rainfall, soil and slope of the area. In order to
improve the technique of bunding, studies have been carried
out in respect of spacing of bunds, shrinkage of bund sections
and hydraulic gradients and kind and location of outlets etc. in
different soil and rainfall conditions of Maharashtra State. On
the basis of such studies, it has been observed that the spacing
between bunds should not be allowed to exceed 1.5m. Vertical
drop or 67.5 m. lateral spacing. The following table21 is a fair
guide.
iii) Graded bunding: In high rainfall areas, while conservation
of soil is important, drainage of surplus water has to be
attended to, for avoiding waterlogged condition of soil. The
bunds are therefore, slightly graded longitudinally about 7.5 cm.
per running 33 m. to prevent safe disposal of water into the
nala. The cross sections into for safe removal of excess run off
water it is essential to provide suitable waste water or outlet
structures at proper places so that no damage is done to bunds
in case heavy precipitation is received on any single day.
Normally stone outlets are provided low rainfalls are as.
Channel weirs or pipe outlets may also be provided. Grass
outlets have been found to be effective and cheaper in heavy
soil. The crest wall should be 30 cm. above the contour level
and its length should be so designed as to discharge the
surplus water from the maximum intensity of rainfall with are
atonable period. 1,250 mm. Terrace bunds consist of
comparatively narrow embankments constructed at intervals
across the slope and the vertical spacing between bunds may
vary from 1to 2 m., depending upon the slope, type of soil,
rainfall etc. Bench terracing is done when gradient is steeper
than 10 p.c. as in hilly ranges of Himalayas, Sahyadry etc. and
consists of a series of step like platforms along contours. These
terraces are like table tops sloping outwards and are provided
with stone waterways to drain away surplus water. Angular and
big boulders should be used for terrace outlets because round
and small boulders will slip and get dislodged under the
gushing water.
Gully or nala control:  Gully or nala control is very essential to
prevent its extension and further destruction of cultivated lands
and grasslands. The sloping sides are planted with grass and
trees. Suitable temporary and permanent structures such as
check dams, overflow dams, drop structures are also provided.
Small gullies can be stabilized by converting them into paddy
fields. So far 17,034 nalas have been controlled and the target
for sixth plan (1980 – 85) period is 2005.
Control of stream and river banks: Vulnerable sharp bends
nalas by the sides of the rods and river bends near village sites
cause considerable damage to property. These should be
protected by providing spurs, jetties, rivets and retaining walls.
Adjoining areas should be stabilized under permanent
vegetation. Spurs are constructed at an angle to reduce the
velocity of water and thereby enabling the flood water to flow
away but deposit coarse sand which will cause obstruction to
successive water currents from cutting into the bank and thus
straightening their course.

12.Basin listing:

Basin-listing consists in making of small interrupted basins

along the counter with a special implement, called a basin
lister. Basin-listing helps to retain rainwater as it falls and is
especially effective on retentive soils having mild slopes.

13.Sub soiling:

Subsoiling is defined as non-inversion tillage below a depth of 14

inches. Soils compacted from traffic, animals or natural processes
benefit from subsoiling because the compacted zone is disrupted.
Subsoiling creates larger pores that increase rooting and infiltration.
The benefits of subsoiling depend upon many factors including soil
type, soil management and vehicle management. Much research
has been conducted that provides evidence of the benefits of
subsoiling. However, some research has shown no overall benefits
to crop productivity. Reasons for the discrepancies include
differences in equipment, climate, annual variations in weather,
cropping systems, management practices and soil types.
The effect of subsoiling to a 15-inch depth was studied in sandy
loams of South Carolina. In this study, researchers found that
subsoiling adequately disrupted the hardpan, reduced soil strength
(see the sidebar, Determining the Depth of a Compacted Soil
Layer), increased infiltration and increased rooting depth. Several
other studies reported increased crop yields and reduced soil
strength due to subsoiling. However, most of these studies provided
little crop management information, and it is assumed that
conventional tillage practices were employed.
A four-year study on a sandy loam in Georgia evaluated the long-
term effects of reducing soil strength by subsoiling to a depth of
14.2–15.0 inches. It concluded that soil strength was reduced but
that reductions were not detected after the second year. The use of
a controlled-traffic system was recommended to increase the
longevity of reduced soil strength. Another study showed that
subsoiling down to 14.2 inches in a sandy loam in Georgia, along
with irrigation, significantly increased grain yields.
14.Contour terracing:

Terracing is an agricultural practice that suggests rearranging

farmlands or turning hills into farmlands by constructing specific
ridged platforms. These platforms are called terraces.
The essential (and distinguished) of terracing agriculture id
excavating and moving the topsoil to form farmed areas and
ridges. The trick is that water flows down to lower platforms
when the upper ones are full. Thus, the amount of water is
distributed more of less evenly, not just at the foot of the hill.
Like in contour strip farming, these terracing systems follow the
relief contour. Terraces consist of point rows and grassed
waterways. Even though such platforms require less input to
arrange them, they are difficult for farming activities due to
space irregularities.

15.Bench terracing:

The original bench terrace system consists of a series of flat

shelf-like areas that convert a steep slope of 20 to 30 percent
to a series of level, or nearly level benches (Fig. 5.2). In other
words, bench terracing consists of construction of series of
platforms along contours cut into hill slope in a step like
formation. These platforms are separated at regular intervals
by vertical drop or by steep sided and protected by vegetation
and sometimes packed by stone retaining walls. In fact, bench
terrace converts the long un-interrupted slope into several
small strips and make protected platform available for
farming. In several hilly areas bench terraces have been used
for the purpose of converting hill slopes to suit agriculture. In
some areas where the climatic conditions favour the growing
of certain cash crops like potato, coffee etc., the hill slopes are
to be bench terraced before the area is put for cultivation of
these crops. Bench terraces have also been adopted for
converting sloping lands into irrigated fields or for orchard
plantations.
Depending on the purpose for which they are used, bench
terraces are also classified as follows:
1. Hill-type bench terraces: used for hilly areas with a grade
reversely towards the hill.
2. Irrigated bench terraces: level benches adopted under
irrigated conditions.
3. Orchard bench terraces: narrow width terraces for
individual trees. These are also referred to as intermittent
terraces and step terraces.

16.Farm Ponds:

Farm ponds have a significantly role in rainfed farming

system where annual rainfall is more than 500 mm. It helps in
mitigating the ill effect of rainfall variability as it stores water
from rainfall excess and provides for utilization during
prolonged dry spells by means of supplemental/protective
irrigation. It also helps in pre-sowing irrigation of rabi crop. In
high rainfall semi-arid regions of India, farm pond can be
used for multiple uses such as protective/supplemental
irrigation, fish culture, duck farming integrated with poultry.
Broadly farm ponds can be categorized into two types i.e.
embankment type and excavated or dugout type.
Embankment Type

These type farm ponds are constructed across the stream or

water course and consist of an earthen dam. Dimension of
embankment are determined based on the required storage.
These ponds are suitable for areas having gentle to moderately
steep slope and also where stream valleys are sufficiently
depressed to permit a maximum storage volume with least
earth work. Given the Indian farming system, this type of
pond is constructed largely at common land resources as it
requires substantial land under submergence.
Excavated or Dugout Ponds

These types of farm ponds are small dug out structures with
well-defined shape and size. These structures have provision
for inlet and outlet. Farm ponds are constructed at lower
portion of the farm and generally stored water is used for
irrigation. In some places farm ponds are used for recharging
groundwater. However, for recharging groundwater, high-
capacity structures located in the highly permeable soil are
more suitable. These structures are also called percolation
tank.
 Dugout ponds are constructed by excavating the soil from the
ground and the excavated soil is used to make embankment
around the pond. The pond could either be fed by surface
runoff or groundwater wherever aquifers are available. The
depth and size of pond depend upon the volume of water to be
stored. This type of pond is more featured in individual farm.
Dug-out ponds can be grouped into the following four
categories:
1.Excavated or dug out ponds
2.Surface ponds
3.Spring or creek fed ponds and
4.Off stream storage ponds
Excavated pond site should be chosen based on general slope
of the field. If slope is towards left bottom corner of the field,
a form pond must be constructed in the left corner of the plot
and similarly for slope towards right bottom corner. If the
slope is towards the bottom of the field, pond can be
constructed at either side corner with proper field channel at
the bottom of the field connecting to the inlet of the structure.
If the farm area has multiple slopes in different direction,
pond should be located in a portion of the area where
maximum water can be drained into the structure.
Surface Pond

When the surface runoff from a farm area is collected into a

local depression or the lowest portion of the farm such that the
excavation is minimum, this type of pond is called surface
pond. Surface pond is possible in the farm area with
undulating topography. This type of pond does not require a
formal inlet provision but it should have formal outlet
provision.
Spring or Creek Fed Ponds

This type of pond is generally constructed at the foothills of

the hilly catchments. After the soil saturation occurred due to
excess rainfall, the subsurface flow of the catchment oozes up
to the surface at the foothills as base flow.
Off Stream Storage Ponds
This type of pond should be adopted where construction of
embankment across the natural channel is not feasible or
economically viable. Off-stream storage ponds collect water
from the stream using diversion. In hilly catchment where,
storage volume upstream of embankment of dam is not
sufficient and unable to sustain the high flow velocity, these
types of structure can be adopted.

17. Stream Bank Protection:

Stream bank protection is the process of placing material along

a bank of a watercourse for the purpose of erosion control to
prevent the loss of bank material and property adjacent to the
banks of the watercourse.
Stream Bank Stabilization—Gabion Method:

The rock-filled gabions are used to stabilize the stream bank;

and also, to divert the flow away from the eroding stream
section. For bank protection the gabions are constructed in the
form of mattresses with the help of one layer of rock encased
by suitable gage wire. The gabion mattresses are flexible and
free draining, as result there is soil filtering and deposition. The
gabion mattresses can be used at unstable streambeds and
stream banks for preventing soil scouring/washing.

Vegetated Geo-Grid Method:

In this method, vegetated geo-grids are used with erosion

control fabrics for covering the bank soil surface. The fabrics
are the geo-textile. View of geo-grids is shown in Fig 6.8. The
fabric is secured by tucking into the slope. And live vegetative
cuttings are placed between the geo-grids. The length of
vegetative cuttings is from 0.5 to 2.5 inches.
From the live cuttings the roots get develop after few days,
which bind the bank soil very tightly, within and behind the geo-
grids. The toe portion of stream bank is packed by placing the
stones. The size of rock pieces varies from 4 to 9 inches
(diameter).

Iowa Vanes:

This is also a structure used for stream bank erosion control

(Fig. 6.10) These structures are installed at the eroding stream
bank/bed to redirect the flow path, due to which there is
deposition of sediments on the eroding bank. Its suitability is
very appropriate to use at the locations where stream gets turn.
At the turning point of stream there is mainly the problem of
undermining. If undermining of stream bank is not properly
checked, then there is possibility of collapsing of the bank.

Vegetative Riprap:

Ripraps are used for preventing the stream bank erosion

caused by high velocity flows or wave actions. This measure
consists of at least one riprap layer, which is mainly a bedding
layer formed over the stream bank. At the locations, where big
size rock pieces are available in sufficient quantity, then two-
layer ripraps can he constructed, in which first layer should be
of big size rocks (bedding layer) and second layer of small
pieces.
The purpose of coarser rock layer is to prevent migration of
particles through riprap. In few cases, the use of non-woven
geo-textiles or a thick layer of primary bedding gravel, rather a
second bedding layer, is also recommended. The bedding
material prevents the underlying or filled materials from being
washed out through the voids. 

Stone Riprap:
The view of stone riprap for stream bank erosion control is
shown in Fig. 6.12. In this method of stream bank erosion
control, a layer of different size rocks is prepared at the affected
stream bank. Normally, the class D or E revetment stones,
broken limestone, dolomite, or quartzite etc., are used for this
purpose. The rough rocks with angular surfaces and of different
sizes are found very suitable for riprap, because such rocks get
fit together very tightly; and form a dense layer over the bank
face.

Pilings with Wire or Geotextile Fencings:

For controlling stream bank erosion, the piling cither with the
help of wire or geotextile fencing is done in single or double
rows. The pilings are arranged in parallel array to the eroding
stream bank. The mesh, wire, or geotextile materials placed in
the piling slow down the flow velocity. Due to slow down of flow
velocity of stream water, the erosive power of water flow gets
dissipated, as result the stream bank becomes protected from
the water flow.
The pilings are also done with slotted fencing, either in single
row or double row. In double row piling which at the place of
wire fencing, the wooden planks are used between the posts.
The spaces between bank and the fence or between the two
fences are filled with the brush or cut branches of trees.

Dormant Post Plantings:

Dormant post plantings are also done for controlling the stream
bank erosion. In this method, the medium-size tree cuttings are
placed in the rows along the eroded stream bank. These posts
form a kind of pervious barrier and create protection to the
stream bank, which is helpful for controlling erosion from there.
The length of post is kept 9 feet and diameter 5 inch. The local
tree species that have good root system are preferred for using
as dormant posts. For easy insertion of posts into the bank soil,
they are tapered by their lower end.
Coconut Fibre Rolls Method:

The coconut fibre rolls are made of coconut husk fibres by

binding together with the help of coconut husk twine. The
shape of roll is cylindrical. The diameter of rolls is about 12 inch
and length are up to 20 feet. For stream bank erosion control,
these rolls are staked at the toe of the slope. Before staking the
rolls, a trench is dug at the toe of the slope for the depth slightly
below the base flow in the stream.

Branch Packing Method:

Stream banks are also likely to get affected, if there are holes in
the bank area. If the size of hole is large then stream water
directly enters them and detach the soil mass from there. In this
condition the soil mass above hole gets settle down.
The striking water washes the settled soils from there.
Sometimes, during high flow there generates waves, which
directly enter the hole; and wash the soil particles from there.
For controlling such type of happening, the branch packing in
the bank holes plays very significant role. It is done by using
live branch cuttings to cover the affected portion of bank.
For better result the live branches should be covered with soil
and thoroughly compacted to seal the bank hole completely.
Fig. 6.15 illustrates the view of branch packing for stream bank
erosion control. This measure is not very effective for the
eroded bank with the holes greater than 4 feet in depth and 4
feet in width.
The rootable live cuttings are preferred. The length of cuttings
should be from 3 to 5 feet and diameter one-half to two inches.

Live Fascine Method:

The live fascine refers to the placing of bundles of tree

branches in the trench constructed at the stream bank, to check
the soil erosion across the bank and establish the soil stability.
For this purpose, the live stakes, branches, rocks etc. are used.
The stream bank is sloped to the tune of at least 2 feet
horizontal to 1 foot vertical (2H: IV); or tiered with 3 to 4-5 feet
steps.
The long and straight bundles of native branches are
constructed in 6-to-8-inch diameter; and are bound with
untreated twine. The length of bundles should be from 5 to 10
feet. It is taken care that within the bundles all the growing tips
of branches must be oriented in the same direction.