ONE oj the most important things in the soil is humus, the product of decayed

organic matter. This article discusses soil humus Jrotn the broadest stand-
point, telling what it is; what its Junctions are; what factors determine
ivhether the supply is large or small and whether it is slowly or quickly used
up; how different types oJ soil differ in their humus content; how humus is
related to the productivity of the soil.

Soil Organic Matter and

Soil Humus

THE fundamental c4iaracteristic.of soil is its productivity; that is,

its capacity to produce green plants. The plants/during a
period of their growth, absorb and accumulate a certain amount
of the radiant energ}^ of sunlight and convert it into a form available
to other living organisms, which are incapable of utilizing the energy
of the sunlight directly. Livnig matter, including, as it does, the sum
total of all living plants, animals, bacteria, etc., is unicßie among the
formations of the earth. It possesses a number of peculiar features
not found in nonliving matter, such as a dissemination of its mass in a
nudtitude of individual organisms, a capacity for endless self-renewal
by means of reproduction, and a marlœd adaptability to environment.
It has been assumed that the amount of Uving matter on the earth
remains more or less constant, and it can further be assumed that this
amoimt is limited by natural conditions at the earth's surface, such, as
temperature, air pressure, and amount of available water. Within
the limits fixed by these factors the earth's surface may be said to be
saturated by Uving matter. The distribution of the latter over the
surface area, however, is very uneven, depending upon local conditions.
The regions where natural conditions are favorable for life harbor
conspicuous congestions of living matter, whereas regions of the
opposite type appear as virtual biological vacuums.
Every natural province or landsca.i)e ^ is characterized by its O\\TI
concentration of living matter, or so-called biological pressure. Bio-
logical pressure represents the relationship between the amount of
'- ('oustantin C. NikiforofT is Soil Sciontiiit, Soil Siirvov Division. Bureau of CJioniistrv nnd Roils
2/nio word ' latidscapc" as used in soil geosraphy moans tho sum tottil of the charactofisTics that distin-
iîiiLMi n cvvUnn aroa on the. earth's surface from other areas. Tliesc cluiraetoristies are tho n^sult not onlv
otnatural forces but of human occupancy aîid uso of the land. Included arnons them arc siich featun^s a^
soil typt^s, vegetation, rock formations hills, valleys, streams, ciiltivated iu^lds, roads, buiidiniïs. AÍl of
these features toíieíher ^>,i\e I he area its distinguishing pattern, which is the landscape.

ni)is:r^—ns on 929
930 ^ Yearbook, 1938
living matter and the surface area; its intensity can be expressed as
the total weight of living matter per unit area or by the variety and
number of organisms per unit area,. The biological pressure of every
natural landscape (note the word "naturaF') is in equilibrium witli the
potential capacity of the region for the reproduction and support of life.
The exact composition of living matter is not known. It is kno^\TL,
liowever, that living matter is made up of many elements, the bulk
of which consists of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Water
is one of the most important constituents of living matter, both as to
function and as to bulk. The development, the functions, and the
very existence of organisms depend largely upon a sufficient supply
of moisture. Relative intensities of biological pressure correspond
very closely to the amounts of available moisture, provided other
conditions, such as temperature and supply of mineral nutrients,
remain relatively constant. Irrigation of many arid regions, for
example, has demonstrated that the actual biological pressure of such
areas is considerably lower than the potential pressure because water
is deficient.
Because of the rather narrow limitation of the total amount of
living matter on the earth and because of its repeated turn-over
during long geological eras, the elements that comprise it must pass
through constantly recurring cycles. A certain amount of living
matter, whether whole organisms or only certain parts of them, is
continually dying and decomposing into its elemental constituents.
At the same time, equal amounts of living matter are being synthesized
anew in the growth of new generations. Endless successions of gener-
ations have deposited their residues in the soil, from which soil organic
matter and sou humus have been formed. In spite of the contiiuial
depositing of residues, neither the soil organic matter as a whole nor
the humus portion of it accumulates endlessly. They are both unstable
and gradually decompose into the simple elemental constituents.
COMPOSITION OF SOIL ORGANIC MATTER AND
SOIL HUMUS
The bodies of dead organisms and the residues of living matter depos-
ited on and within the soil form the material known as soil organic
matter. Soil organic matter theoretically comprises only the dead
residues of organisms and the various products of their decomposition.
It is practically impossible, however, to separate this material from
the living micro-organisms that inhabit the soil and perform the taslv
of decomposing the residues. The bulk of the bodies of micro-organ-
isms, together with their own residues, is therefore commonly regarded
as a part of soil organic matter. This matter includes the dead roots,
leaves, fruits, and stems of pla.nts; carcasses of insects, worms, and
animals; live and dead bacteria, fungi, and protozoa; various products
of decomposition of the dead residues; and the newly synthesized
substance of active micro-organisms.
Chemically, soil organic matter represents a niixture of a great
many different substances w^hich can be classified into three groups:
(1 ) Carbohydrates, (2) protein, and (3) fats, resins, waxes, and similar
compoimds. The gradual decomposition of these organic snbstances
into the most simple mineral compounds is spoken of as mineraliza-
 Soil Organic Matter and Soil Humus -^ 931
tion. The ultimate end products of mineralization are principally
water and carbon dioxide and smaller amonnts of free nitrogen,
ammonia, methane, etc., and a few simple mineral salts. The process
of mineralization, or reduction of the fresh, residues to the simple end
products, proceeds gradually with the formation of a number of
intermediate substances. Some of these are products of the decom-
position of the original material, and others are the result of resyn-
thesis. Sooner or later the entire amount of organic residues turned
over to the soil in any given time undergoes complete mineralization.
Soil humus represents a stage in the decomposition of soil organic
matter. Organic residues as a whole do not decompose uniformly.
Some substances decompose rapidly and are reduced to their ele-
mental constituents in a short time; other substances are more resist-
ant to decomposition, and the process of their mineralization may
extend over a period of many years. The resulting mixture of many
different compounds formed during the decomposition pi'ocesses is
humus. It has no definite chemical composition, but pln^sically it is
a homogeneous, amorphous, dark-colored, and practically odorless
material. Fresh organic residues, as well as those in an advanced
stage of decomposition which still preserve a specific structure of the
organized tissues, are not considered a part of soil humus, although
they are sometimes referred to as raw humus.
ACCUMULATION OF HUMUS IN THE SOIL
Soil humus is not a stal)le material. As the organic matter decom-
poses, new humus is continually being formed, and part of the old is
being completely mineralized. The equilibrium between the two proc-
esses determines the amount of humus present in a soil at a given time.
During the development of a young and immature soil the amount
of new humus annually added is greater than the amount undergoing
mineralization, and a gradual accumulation occurs. As the soil
develops and approaches maturity, the absohite amounts of humus
undergoing mineralization gradually increase until they equal the
amounts of newly formed humus. Fi'om that time on, the two proc-
esses—formation and mineralization—proceed at an equal rate, and
the soil may be said to have reached a state of maturity or one of
equilibrium with its natural environment. The average content of
humus in the mature soil remains relatively constant as long as no
change in natural conditions occiu^s. Any change in the natural
conditions that upsets the ecpiilibrium will be followed by a corre-
sponding change in the humus content of the soil.
A great many profoimd changes of natiu'al environment are caused
by man. To mention only a few of the more spectacular meddlings
with nature, irrigation of arid huid, drainage of wet land, deforestation,
annual removal of crops, and the breaking of sod all lead to a rapid
and marked change of the humus balance of the affected soil. The
stability of the new soil conditions depends entirely on the stability of
the changes effected in the environment. As a general rule, nature
sooner or later tends to obliterate all these changes and to reestablish
her own ways. Reestablishment of the old balance, however, usually
takes a much longer time than it did to accomplisli the striking
changes produced l)y artificial processes.
932 4- Yearbook, 1938
FUNCTIONS OF HUMUS
Tl^c function of Imnms in any soil system and its significance for
i]iiiintenance of the productivity of the soil is determined by its dy-
namic character. Hiiiniis is not a mechanical accumulation of static
or iîiort material. It represents a certain stage of an endless turn-OYer
or oxcJiange of certain elements between liviTig matter and the mineral
kingdom. The gradual, rather slow mineralization of humus con-
tinually liberates a certain amount of simple mineral compounds in
forms available for consumption, by growing plants.
A certain supply of mineral nutjîents in available form is essential
for normal development of living matter. The weathering of ininerals
in tlie earth's crust liberates the original supply of these simple coin-
pounds, but at the same time part of them are carried away in drainage
waters and finally find their way to the ocean. Living matter ab-
sorbs a part of these m ateríais, thus prcventmg their rapid and com-
plete removal. This mhieral material in dead organic matter—so-
called ash material—is included in the soil humus and is gradually
Uberated in a form again available to plants as the humus decomposes.
Soil humus, therefore, appears as a storeroom of the mineral plant
nutrients and as a regulator of their supply to the growing crop.
The significance of humus in soil is not limited to its fimction as a
cojiscrver of mineral plant nutrients and a regulator of their liberation.
Ilumus modifies such physical and mechanical properties of the soil
as structure, color, consistence, and moisture-holding capacity to a
very great degree. For example, the formation of the granular struc-
ture most favorable for the development of crop plants is governed by
the content of hmnus in the soil.
FACTORS GOVERNING CONTENT AND NATURE OF
SOIL HUMUS
The absolute content of humus in difi^erent soils varies greatly. The
amount is a function both of the original quantity of humus-forming
material per unit area and of the rate of decomposition. The former
]iaturally depends upon the volume of living matter returned to the
soil in. the form of organic residues, wiiereas the latter is a function of
the quality of the residues aiid of the energy and activity of the soil
inicro-organisms and other decomposing agents.
The greatest content of humus in a soil is not necessarily associated
with the greatest production of living matter. In many regions a
high biological pressure is accompanied by an exceedingly strong
activity of the decomposing agents, so that the organic residues undcj-
go very ]*apid mineralization, with the formation of little, if any, true
humus. The relatively low humus content of forested tropical soils
can be cited by way of illustration. In direct contrast with the
tropical regions are the typical grasslands, where a moderate biological
pressure is combined with a slow and gradiuil decomposition of the
rosidues^—a condition that leads to the formation of an enormous
amount of humus in the grassland soils.
The bulk of organic residues in every soil is fm'iiished by plants.
Consequently, the general character of vegetation will be a major
factor ÍTi determining the quantity, distribution, and general quality
 Soil Organic Matter and Soil Humus ^ 933
of soil organic matter, inehidino; lunmis. The geograpliical distribu-
tion of plants, in turn, depends upon climatic conditions. Climatic
coTiditions will also ailVct the ecology '^ and energy of the micro-
organisms and thus influence the general direction íind velocity of
mineralization.
ConditioTis of climate, the general character of i)lant associations,
and the activitv of micro-orö:anisms collectivelv determine the nature
(Respiration) ( Photosynthesis)
Nitrogen Oxygen CÛ2 Light H2O Heat

Accumuiation
Loss through
leaching

FIGURE 1.—Tiie relatiotiships Ijetwecn the various processes concerned with

syiuliesis and decomposition of liunius in the soil.

of the cycles through which elements wilt pass as they aj'e taken up
froip. the soil, become incorporated in living matter, and finally find
their way back to the soil again. Cycles will l)e either short or long,
fast or slow, depending on the combination of the above factors.
Ijarge or small amounts of substances will be invoh^ed, according to
whether vegetation is rank or sparse. Decomposition of residues will
be I'apid and complete or slow and partial or will vary with, tlio seasons
as the temperature, water supply, iind tyi^es of organisms vary. The
nature of the cycle, or the relationship between living matter and the
soil, will determine the cliaracter of the soil humus and tlie fmulamental
properties of the soil as well.
Two very definite consecutive phases may be differentiated—one
a synthesis of organic matter })y living organisms; the other, a decom-
position and mineralization of this mateiinl in the soil (fig. 1 ).
^ Kcology refers to the imiluai relations boUvecn living orjiaTiisnis and l.[uM"r onvironTiiont.
934 ^ Yearbook, 1938
The cyclic cliaracter of the oxchfingo of substances between the
soil and living matter and the relative constancy of the amounts of
material involved does not mean that the same substances circulate
endlessly through living matter and soil humus. A certain amoimt is
constantly escaping and being lost to the CA'cle, some of it being
leached from the soil, some being lost to the atmosphere, and some
being fixed as insohible mineral complexes. Such losses are offset
by the introduction of like quantities of similar material from difl'ercnt
sources. Mineral nutrients are provided by a ceaseless decomposition
of mineral constituents of soil; nitrogen is extracted from the air by
the nitrogen-fixing micro-organisms; and carbon dioxide is fixed b^^
means of photosynthesis.^
The principal agents of decomposition con]prise a great variety of
living organisms, which can be classified into three general groups:
(1) Higher organisms, mostly of the animal Idngdom, (2) bacteria, and
(3) fungi. Most of the higher organisms consmne the fresh material
and leave the partly decomposed products in the îorm of excreta,
which are broken down by micro-organisms. The amount of de-
composition performed by higher organisms can be illustrated by
citing the devastations caused by locusts and grasshoppers, the work
performed by earthworms, and the volume of crops liarvested and
consimicd by man and his domestic animals.
It is not yet known precisely how the process of decomposition of
residues by fu]igi dinners from that performed by bacteria. It is
generally assumed, however, that the residues of forest vegetation nrc
decomposed chiefiy by fungi and that those of grasslands are decom-
posed mostly by bacteria,
HUMUS UNDER DIFFERENT TYPES OF
SOIL FORMATION
The three principal types of soil formation—those occurring in
grassland, woodland, and shrub land—are characterized by particular
equilibria between the soil and life upon it. Dift'erences in type of
vegetation, for exami)le, or in the natui'e and rate of decomposition
of organic residues exist between the particTÜar soil tj^pes that have
developed in and are characíteristic of the various regions.
In addition to the three principal types of soil-forming processes
outlined below, there are several others resulting fiom combhiations
of different types of vegetation, for example, forest and grass, forest
and shrubs, shrubs and giass, etc. All these occupy intermediate
positions as to content and distribution of humus within the profile,
depending upon the relative dominance of one soil-fornnng process.
In Grasslands
The grassland type of soil formation is associated with the sub-
arid and moderately warm climatic ])rovinces; vegetative periods
alternate with cold wintry ones, as a rule, although the two may be
separated by a short dry season, which ternnnates plant growth prior
to the first killing frosts. Under this regimen, practically the entire
mass of vegetable material produced by the animal crop is turned
*Photosynî.besis is a iirocess whereby groen ])lants uiilizc part of the enerjzy of suiüiglu to syrifhesize
carbohydrates such as siifrar from car])OTi dio.Nido and water.
 Soil Organic Matter and Soil Humus *§* 935
over to tlve soil in the form of dead organic residues. Only seeds and
the reproducing organs of biennials and perennials survive. The
fibrous grass roots are concentrated in the upper 6 to 12 inches of the
soil and form a more or less compact sod. The dry grass, killed by
the late summer drought, is not detached from the roots but lies on
the surface, forming a soft mat, which is covered and somewhat
compressed by the snow in winter.
Very little decomposition of either tops or roots occurs during tlie
winter, but a vigorous activity of the micro-organisms develops during
the next spring simultaneously with the begiuTiing of the vegetative
period. Substances hi the residues, such as cellulose (cotton is an
example of nearly pure cellulose) and hemicellulose (substances less
complex than cellulose and readily broken down to simple sugars)
decompose rapidly and disappear from the soil in a short time. Other
substances, such as lignin (a principal component of woody materials,
which gives them rigidity), decompose slowly and may persist in the
soil for many years. The general process of decomposition of the
organic residues, therefore, seems to proceed rapidly at first but
gradually slows down, leading to the formation of a large quantity of
true humus. Because of the slowing down, the turn-over of material
from living matter through soil humus to the final end products is not
complete before the next cycle begins. Every new cycle beginning in
the spring overlaps various phases of the preceding cy^cles, winch
naturally leads to a formation of humus complexes. In a mature soil
balanced with its environment, the annual income of fresh humus
equals the amount lost through mineralization. The humus content
of a soil is thereby maintained at a constant level despite continual
reyjla cement.
Under Forest
The relationship between living inatter iuul soil humus under a
forest type of soil formation differs from that in grasslands in the
Tiiiture of the cycles through which the elements pass. Under wood-
land there are at least two fundamentally différent subcycles. Part
of the livhîg matter is turned over to the soil annually and part at
longer but irregular intervals. The annual return of organic matter
to the soil consists of dead leaves, needles, cones, and small branches,
all of which are deposited on the surface. Here they arc combineil
with mosses, lichens, ferns, mushrooms, aiid a few grasses to form a
soft, fluüy layer which is permeated by mold and the roots of shrubs.
All this material remains on the surface of the soil. The organic
I'esidues in the form of dead roots annually turned over to the soil and
distributed within it (below the surface) comprise a small part of the
total mass of residues of the forest vegetation. The residues of the
tree roots are 7iot concentrated in any narrow soil horizon, like most
of the roots of the grass vegetation. Therefore the relative amounts
of organic matter ami humus formed from these residues are much less
in proportion to the mineral part in forest than in grassland soil.
The general nature of the subcyclo through which the annual leaf fall
passes—to soil humus, through mineralization, and back to living
matter again—is more or less similar to the cycle that prevails in
íírasslands.
936 4^ Yearbook, 1938
A second part of the living luatter of forest vegetation goes throiigli
a much slower cycle before it again becomes living matter. The
trunks and roots of trees do not die annually but fix a considerable
amount of gradually growing living matter for many years. In
addition to retaining substances in their structures for long periods
wiiile growing, the fallen trunks of dead, trees decompose slowly and
remain on the surface of the soil for mauy more years, after being
covered by moss and the blanket formed on the forest floor. The
rotten woody material resulting from the decay of trees and their roots
is added to the mass of the forest floor and at times gives it a rather
bright-brown or coffee-brown color.
The process of mineralization of all the different kinds of debris on
the forest floor requires maiiy years for completion. Advance stages
of decomposition of the older residues, therefore, may be overlapped
by the first stages of decay of more recent deposits, and the older
residues themselves may be covered by the less decomposed ones of
the more recent cycles. Very little true amorphous hunuis is pro-
duced under forest, for several different reasons.
It has been found that the humus of forest soil is less resistant to
further decomposition than the humus of grassland soils. It would
seem very likely, therefore, that the entire process of mineralization
of residues under forest does not take so much time as under grass-
land but is completed in a comparatively short period. It can also
be assumed that most of the forest residues decompose more directly
into the simplest end products, with the formation of less true humus.
Finally, a more diffuse distribution of organic matter occurs in forest
soils, since the tree roots are not concentrated in any comparatively
shallow horizon but are scattered throughout a much greater thickness
of soil. All these conditions and possibly others arc responsible for
the much lower content of humus in forest soils than in grassland
soils and may explain the fact that most of the soil organic matter in
the forest consists of the semidecomposed raw humus, whereas in the
grassland soil most of it is in the form of the true humus.
In Deserts
The shrub-land type of soil formation includes two different sub-
types, the cold desert, or tundra, and the hot desert. Very little is
actually known about the soil-forming pi'ocesses of the tundra exce])t
that the vegetative period is short and that general conditions are too
severe for the development of large amounts of living matter. The
annual income of organic residues to the soil is rather small, but it is
accompanied by a slow decomposition, due partly to tlic weakness of
the micro-organisms and partly to the shortness of the season during
which biological activity takes place. CoTisequcntly the organic
matter of the tundra soil is mostly in the form of raw humus, wldch
forms a peaty cover (moss peat) on the surface of the mineral soil.
In the hot desert there is very little if any hite]'ru])tion of the period
of possible vegetative growth b}?- frost. The short cold period, wheie
it does occur, is preceded by a long droughty season, which terminates
the growth of plants far in advance of killing frosts and reduces the
vegetative period of the spring and early summei' to a very slioi't
interval. Only a small amount of o]\gani(*. material is anniiall}' j)ro-
 Soil Organic iMatter and Soil. Humus ^ 937
dneecl and turned over to the soil. The heat of the dry season, whicl]
toî'jninates veg-etative develoj^ment, does not arrest the activity of the
inicro-organisnis but probably stimulates it. Decomposition is there-
by hastened to such an extent that the annual residues are completely
gone long befoie the next period of vegetative growth. This naturally
precludes the possibility of humus formation and leaves the desert
soils very poor in organic matter. The organic residues left by the
desert plants on the surface of the soil consist mostly of small, hard,
but brittle leaflets and stems, which are easily detached and carriecl
about by wind. The roots of plants must l)e spread through a con-
siderable depth of soil to obtain moisture, consequently no relative
concentration of the organic matter occurs in the profdes of these soils.
DISTRIBUTION OF HUMUS IN THE SOIL
Distribution oC the humus within the profile is governed largeh^
by distribution of the original organic matter, but some movement
of humus may occur.
By far the greatei- part of organic residues is naturally deposited on
the surface of the soil, so that the maximum content of humus occurs
at the very to|) of the soil profile with only rare exceptions. The
organic residues within the soil consist chieily of dead roots; carcasses
of dead animals, insects, and woiins; organic material brought into the
soil from tlie siu'face by its population; and the micro-organisms.
In some instances the total amoimt of organic matter of roots (espe-
cially of grasses) camu)t be much less than that of the aerial parts,
but as a rule the distjibution of roots is so diïïuse that the relative
percentage of organic residues per unit volume from roots is less than
that accumulated on the surface of the soil.
Normally the content of soil organic matter, and particularly humus,
will be greatest near the surface of the soil and will decrease with
def)th until it disappears entirely. Soils formed imder grassland are
characterized by a very gradual decrease of the content of humus in
passing to the lower horizons, wKereas in the soils of the woodland ty])e
there is a rather sudden and shar]) decrease in orgaTiic matter very
close to the surface. Annual deposits of organic material in the
forest consist principally of the residues deposited on the surface
(leaves, needles, cones, etc.)? and roots supply a relatively small
proportion.
The solubility of soil humus in water is very low; usually only a
fraction of 1 percent of the total mass of humus is in a water-soluble
form. Very little shifting and distribution of humus in the soil body
occurs in connection with the movement of soil solutions. Much,
greater quantities of hunuis are moved from the points of origin
mechanically and in sus])ensions. It can be assumed that a large part
of the luunus in the deei)er horizons of Chernozems and other grass-
land soils has moved down from the surface by iniiltration.
Humus Content
The content of hunuis in the u])per hojizon of the American Cherno-
zems, such as those of Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, varies from
about 5 to more than 10 percent. The horizon with, a high content
938 ^ Yearbook, 1938
of organic matter varies in thickness from only a few inches to inore
than a foot. Downward the content of Immus gradually declines;
occasionally, however, the soil may contain more than 1 percent at a
depth, of 3 or more feet.
A calculation of the total amount of himins in certain Chernozems
of Nebraska and the Dakotas shows that 1 acre of this soil may hold
from 120 to more than 240 tons of hnmiis. In other regions of the
worlds Chernozems are knowai that contain from 400 to about 600 tons
of humus per acre. The amount of organic matter in the forni of
humus in a black grassland soil can be many times greater by weight
or volume than the amount of the best crop of living matter grown on
that soil. Such a relation between the quantities of organic matter
in the form of living matter and of soil humus indicates that the process
of mineralization of humus in these regions is exceedingly slow and
that the humus stores a great reserve of the plant nutrients.
The average carbon content of humus is 56 percent, and the carbon-
nitrogen ratio is about 10 to 1. The ash content of humus, contain-
ing the phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, and man}^ other elements, is
variable but is known to be somewhat higher than that of the residues
from which the humus is formed. The content of ash in herbaceous
plants varies between 5 and 7 percent. Therefore it may be assumed
that 1 acre of Chernozem soil holds from 60 to 300 tons of organic
carbon, from 6 to 30 tons of nitrogen, and a reserve of 6 to 30 tons of
different mineral plant nutrients well protected from w^aste by leach-
ing.
The content of organic matter m the soils of the forested belt is
considerably lower than that of the grassland soils. The calculation
of the amount of such material in the forest soils of the Eastern and
Northeastern States shows that it varies from less than 40 to about
80 tons per acre. These figures, however, do not represent the quan-
tities of true soil humus. A large part of this material, more than half
of it in many instances, is composed of partly deconiposed residues,
which form a layer of raw humus on the surface of the soil. The
amount of true humus in forest soils probably varies fj'om about 20 to
50 tons per acre. The quantity of organic iiuitter in forest soils is
much less than that of the living plants supported by this soil.

SOIL ORGANIC MATTER AND SOIL PRODUCTIVITY

The conspicuous role of the soil organic matter, particularly of humus,
as a storehouse of nutrients and regidator of their supply to growmg
plants reveals the importance of this niaterial to the productivity of
soil. It is generally true that the soils having a greater content of
humus are more productive than soils having less organic matter. It
is not true, however, that soils with a relatively small content of luunus
are necessarily and ahvays less capable of producing a good crop.
The inherent productivity of such soils can be surprisingly high, but as
a rule it does not last so long as that of soils rich in humus.
It has already been stated that the average content of humus in
every mature soil is in equilibrium with the natui'al enviroument.
Every change of this environment brings about a corresponding change
in the content of soil humus. Cultivation, of the virgin soil, that is,
 Soil Organic Matter and Soil Humus ^ 939
the g'rowino- of particular selectci] ])lants and harvesting of the crops^,
is one of tlie most profound modifications of the enyironment that
affect the natiu^al balance of the soil humus. It has been found that
in some instances the cultivation and cropping of virgin land caused a
rather marked and sharp decrease in the content of organic matter,,
but that the decline became gradually less and less marked during tlie
years of continued cultivation arul finally became negligible. It is
apparent that the cultivation created a new environment and that
the decline in the humus content of the soil was caused by an adjust-
ment of the soil condition to this new environment.
It does not foUow necessarily that all cnltivation of the land is
accompanied by a decrease of humus in the soil. Many instances are
known in whicvh contiiuied cultivation of the soil for many years did
not cause any noticeable decline in its content of humus. There are
also instances hi which cultivation not only did not lower but really
increased the content of organic matter in the soil.
Cultivated crops, in many instatices, produce a volume of organic
matter which is several times that produced by native plants. The
residues left in the iield after the harvesting of crops, however, may
or may not equal the amount of organic matter annually deposited on
aTid in the soil by the nativ^e vegetation. If crop residues equal or
exceed in volume and quality the residues of the original vegetation,
the suppUes of hunuis hi the soil will be maintained at or above original
levels. If, as has often happened, the vohone or quality of crop resi-
dues is less than it was for the native vegetation, humus supplies in
the soil will decUne ludess additional organic matter is furnished from
other soiu'ces.
Regardless of the vohmie of the crop residues left on the land, har-
vesting and removal of plants does deprive the soil of certain mineral
nutrients suppUed by the soil itself. These nutrients originate from
the decomposition of minerals in the soils, wliich is itself a slow process.
If the rate of weathering somewhat exceeds the rate of removal by
crops, no harmful effects will follow. ^ If, however, the rate of removal
by crops exceeds the rate of weathering, the fertility of the soil will be
lowered, even though supplies of humus do remain the same. It is
probable that declining levels of mineral nutrients in the soil will be
associated with declining supplies of humus, in most instances, and
that provision must be made both for replacement of the organic
matter and replenishment of the nutrient levels if productivity is to
be maintained.
It shonld not be thought that storage of plant nutrients is the one
all-important function of humus in the soil. Humus serves a number
of functions, all of which are not fully nnderstood at present. The
example of the relationship between humus, supplies of mineral
nutrients, and the rate of weathering in the soil illustrates the very
intimate tie-up between the various components in the soil and
em])hasizes the fact that maintenance of humus must be au essential
part of the entire system n\an follows in nsing the soil.