Revision before starting theme 2

Mahwish Siddiqui
Soil and Soil Dynamics

It is a thin layer on top of most of Earth’s land surface and

It is a basic natural resource.
Functions of soil:
Holds nutrients and water for plants and animals.
Water is filtered and cleansed as it flows through soils.
Affect the chemistry of water and the amount of water that
returns to the atmosphere to form rain.
Composition of Soil

 A fertile soil should have the following components:

 45% minerals (Mixture of sand, silt, and clay)
 5% organic matter
 25% air
 25% water
Composition of Soil
Composition of Soil
Clay
 Very fine particles. Compacts easily. Forms large, dense clumps when wet. Low
permeability to water; therefore upper layers become waterlogged.
Gravel
 Coarse particles. Consists of rock fragments.
Loam
 About equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt, and humus. Rich in nutrients. Holds water but does
not become waterlogged.
Sand
 Sedimentary material coarser than silt. Water flows through too quickly for most crops.
Good for crops and plants requiring low amounts of water.
Silt
 Sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles between the size of sand and clay.
Easily transported by water.
Soil and Soil Dynamics (Plant Nutrient
Pathways)
Soil and Soil Dynamics
Desertification
Definition: Productive
Soil Conservation
potential of arid or
semiarid land falls by at
least 10% due to human
activity and/or climate
change.
 Refer to hand out
Symptoms: Loss of native
vegetation; increased
wind erosion; salinization;
drop in water table;
reduced surface water
supply
Remediation: Reduce
overgrazing; reduce
deforestation; reduce
destructive forms of
planting, irrigating, and
mining. Plant trees.
Salinization Waterlogging
Definition: Water that is Definition: Saturation of
not absorbed into the soil soil with water resulting in
and evaporates leaves a rise in the water table.
behind dissolved salts in
topsoil.
Symptoms: Stunted crop Symptoms: saline water
growth; lower yield; envelops deep roots killing
eventual destruction of plants; lowers
plant life productivity; eventual
destruction of plant life
Remediation: take land Remediation: Switch to
out of production for a less eater-demanding
while; and/or install plants in areas susceptible
underground perforated to waterlogging.
drainage pipes; plant
halophytes (salt-loving
plants)
Rock Cycle
Rock Cycle
Theme 2: Hierarchy of living world
Mahwish Siddiqui
Ecosystem Structure

 When learning about the existing world you might study two levels of
integration : the biological levels and the ecological levels
 Biological levels
atoms ->molecules -> organelles -> cells -> tissues -> organs
 -> organisms
Ecological levels :
populations -> communities -> ecosystems -> landscapes ->
biomes -> biosphere
Ecosystem Structure
Ecosystem Structure

 The smallest particle of a chemical element is atom. For example

hydrogen.
 A group of atoms bonded together is a molecule. For example
Water is a molecule as well because it is made from atoms that
have been chemically combined.
 The colorless material comprising the living part of a cell (is the
building block and it is the unit of life), including the cytoplasm,
nucleus, and other organelles is the protoplasm.
Ecosystem Structure

 When we have a group of similar cells working together this is called a tissue,
for example muscle tissue is made up of lots of muscle cells. All the cells in a
tissue look the same and perform the same job. 
 A group of different tissue working together to do a specific job is known as
an organ, our heart, stomach, lungs are all organs.
 Different organs working together form an organ system, our heart and blood
vessels work together as part of our circulatory system.
 All of our organ systems put together make up a living organism and that is
you!
Ecosystem Structure

Population
A population is a collection of entities of the same species
that are actively interbreeding, or exchanging genetic
information.
Ecological Community
An ecological community is a naturally occurring
collection of natural plants, animals and other organisms
that are interrelating in a distinctive habitat.
Ecosystem

 An ecosystem is a community of living organisms, the

biocenosis, (plants, animals and microbes) in
combination with the non living constituents (air, water
and mineral soil), the biotope, interacting as a system.
These biotic and abiotic constituents are considered as
interconnected together through nutrient cycles and
energy flows. As ecosystems are defined by the system
of interactions among organisms, and between
organisms and their environment.
Ecosystem Structure

 Biomes are climatically and geographically defined as contiguous

areas with similar climatic conditions such as communities of
plants, animals and soil organisms, and are often referred to as
ecosystems. Biomes are larger units of organization that
categorize regions of the Earth's ecosystems, mainly according to
the structure and composition of vegetation. Biomes are
characterized by similar climax vegetation.
 Niche
A niche is "a set of biotic and abiotic settings in which a species is
able to continue and sustain stable population sizes."
What is Ecology?

 The word "ecology" was presented in 1866 by

the German scientist Ernst Haeckel from two
Greek words: Eco means "house"; and logy,
"study of".
Ecology is the study of relations among entities
and their surroundings, biological (biotic) or non
biological (non biotic or abiotic).
Energy Flow (Photosynthesis and cellular respiration; food
webs and trophic levels; ecological pyramids

 There is a relationship between light, primary production, and ecological

energy budget. Sunlight is the primary input of energy into the planet's
ecosystems. Light is composed of electromagnetic energy of different
wavelengths. Radiant energy from the sun generates heat, provides photons of
light measured as active energy in the chemical reactions of life. Less than 1%
of the solar energy reaching Earth's surface is absorbed by green plants or
algae and used in photosynthesis.
 Plants, algae, and some bacteria absorb light and assimilate the energy through
photosynthesis. Organisms capable of assimilating energy by photosynthesis
are autotrophs responsible for primary production.
Energy Flow (Photosynthesis and cellular respiration; food
webs and trophic levels; ecological pyramids

 One can broadly put all life forms into one of two categories called trophic
levels: the autotrophs, producing organic matter from inorganic substances and
the heterotrophs feeding on autotrophs.
 One can broadly put all life forms into one of two categories called trophic
levels: the autotrophs, producing organic matter from inorganic substances and
the heterotrophs feeding on autotrophs.
 Secondary production is sometimes defined to only include consumption of
primary producers by herbivorous consumers (with tertiary production
referring to carnivorous consumers) but is more commonly defined to include
all biomass generation by heterotrophs. Organisms responsible for secondary
production include animals, protists, fungi, and many bacteria.
Energy Flow (Photosynthesis and cellular respiration; food
webs and trophic levels; ecological pyramids

 A food web (food cycle, food chain) is a functional network depicting feeding
connections (what eats-what) in an ecological community and hence is also
referred to as a consumer-resource-system.
 Food chains start at trophic level 1 with primary producers such as plants,
move to herbivores at level 2, predators at level 3 and typically finish with
carnivores at level 4 or 5. The path along the chain can form either a one-way
flow or a food "web". Ecological communities with higher biodiversity form
more complex trophic paths.
Energy Pyramid
Ecosystem Diversity (Biodiversity; natural selection;
evolution; ecosystem services)

 As the name implies, it is the diversity of life in the word. If every species
always remained the same, then obviously, evolution must not be taking place.
 The change does happen based on the environment. That would be the
mechanism of natural selection. Environments are inherently different too. So,
imagine a creature such as the ancient ancestor of modern day elephants. If
half of those creatures were to find themselves in a hot environment, like
Africa, and the other half were to find themselves in a cold environment, like
Ice Age Europe, then over time, you might end up with modern day elephants
and woolly mammoths. They descend from the same common ancestor, but
through natural selection, they become diverse. 
Ecosystem Diversity (Biodiversity; natural selection;
evolution; ecosystem services)

 Evolution is simply “descent with modification”. What this

means is that the offspring are different from the parents. In
nature, no two environments are the same. We call each particular
set of circumstances a niche. The variation in genetic
combinations allows offspring to fit into different niches.
Eventually the organisms in each niche differentiate into different
species.
 Biodiversity simply means that different species fit into different
niches. The more niches there are, the more species there are to
fit into them. Evolution is the mechanism that generates
biodiversity.
  
Why Ecosystem Diversity?

 Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity where each species,

no matter how small, all have an important role to play.
 For example,
 A larger number of plant species means a greater variety of crops
 Greater species diversity ensures natural sustainability for all life
forms
 Healthy ecosystems can better withstand and recover from a
variety of disasters
Why Ecosystem Diversity?

 For example, the crops that we grow though our clever use of
agriculture are enabled by the nitrogen present in the soil. This
nitrogen nourishes and strengthens our crops. But where does it
come from? Worms, bacteria and other life found within the soil
love to decompose vegetation. When they eat, these organisms
produce nitrogen as waste, which crops really love. This is also
how nutrient-rich compost is made. If these bacteria species were
killed off, then our crops would not grow properly.
Why Ecosystem Diversity?

 This holds true for ocean ecosystems too. The ocean --

along with land-based plant vegetation -- plays a major
role in absorbing carbon dioxide -- a gas that humans
can't breathe. The ocean doesn't absorb this CO2on its
own. It relies on organisms like phytoplankton --
microscopic aquatic plant life -- to absorb the CO2. Loss
of phytoplankton means we lose adequate levels of
breathable air.
Natural Biogeochemical Cycles

 There are a few types of atoms that can be a part of a plant one
day, an animal the next day, and then travel downstream as a part
of a river’s water the following day. These atoms can be a part of
both living things like plants and animals, as well as non-living
things like water, air, and even rocks. The same atoms are
recycled over and over in different parts of the Earth. This type of
cycle of atoms between living and non-living things is known as
a biogeochemical cycle.
Carbon Cycle
Carbon Cycle

 Carbon moves from the atmosphere to plants. In the atmosphere,

carbon is attached to oxygen in a gas called carbon dioxide
(CO2). Through the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is
pulled from the air to produce food made from carbon for plant
growth.
 Carbon moves from plants to animals. Through food chains, the
carbon that is in plants moves to the animals that eat them.
Animals that eat other animals get the carbon from their food too.
Carbon Cycle

 Carbon moves from plants and animals to soils. When plants and
animals die, their bodies, wood and leaves decays bringing the
carbon into the ground. Some is buried and will become fossil
fuels in millions and millions of years.
 Carbon moves from living things to the atmosphere. Each time
you exhale, you are releasing carbon dioxide gas (CO2) into the
atmosphere. Animals and plants need to get rid of carbon dioxide
gas through a process called respiration.
Carbon Cycle

 Carbon moves from fossil fuels to the atmosphere when

fuels are burned. When humans burn fossil fuels to
power factories, power plants, cars and trucks, most of
the carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide gas. Each year, five and a half billion tons of
carbon is released by burning fossil fuels. Of this
massive amount, 3.3 billion tons stays in the
atmosphere. Most of the remainder becomes dissolved
in seawater.
Carbon Cycle

 Carbon moves from the atmosphere to the oceans. The

oceans, and other bodies of water, absorb some carbon
from the atmosphere. The carbon is dissolved into the
water.
How humans’ activities disturbed Carbon
Cycle
 Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and traps heat in the
atmosphere. Without it and other greenhouse gases,
Earth would be a frozen world. But since the start of the
Industrial Revolution about 150 years ago humans have
burned so much fuel and released so much carbon
dioxide into the air that global climate has risen over
one degree Fahrenheit. 
Human Impact on the Carbon Cycle:

 Deforestation, coal-burning power plants, automobile exhausts, factory

smokestacks, and other waste vents of the human environment contribute
about 22 billion tons of carbon dioxide (corresponding to 6 billion tons of pure
carbon) and other greenhouse gases into the earth’s atmosphere each year. This
alters the Carbon Cycle drastically.
 This serious imbalance in the Carbon cycle is responsible behind the
phenomena like Green House Effect, Global Warming and Climate Change. It
is now an established fact that this environmental impact will have disastrous
consequences for the entire biosphere and humanity.
What needs to be done?

 Renewable energy
 Many home owners are also investing in their own energy
sources by installing solar panels to help heat their house. This
helps bring energy costs down as well as conserving fossil fuels
and reducing carbon dioxide emissions.
 The good news is that it is not just solar that can have such
positive impacts. The same could be said of small wind turbines
placed appropriately as well as geothermal heat pumps.