Matrices

Introduction
 Matrices - Introduction
Matrix algebra has at least two advantages:
•Reduces complicated systems of equations to simple
expressions
•Adaptable to systematic method of mathematical treatment
and well suited to computers. 3x  x  x  2
1 2 3
For Ex: The equations can be expressed 2 x1  x2  1
as
x1  2 x2  x3  3
A x B = C
3  1 1   x1  2
 2 1 0   x   1 
  2   
1 2  1  x3  3
 Matrix
Definition:
A matrix is a set or group of numbers arranged in a
square or rectangular array enclosed by two brackets
Example

 4 2 a b 
1  1  3 0 c d 
   
 Matrices - Introduction
Properties:
•A specified number of rows and a specified number of
columns
•Two numbers (rows x columns) describe the dimensions
or size of the matrix called order of matrices.

Order of matrices: 3x3 matrix 2x4 matrix 1x2 m

1 2 4 1 1
4  1 5 
  0 0
3  3
 1  1
3 2 
3 3 3
 Matrices - Introduction
A matrix or matrix name is denoted by a bold capital letter and
the elements within the matrix are denoted by lower case letters
i goes from 1 to m
e.g. matrix [A] with elements aij
j goes from 1 to n

Amxn=
 a11 a12 ... aij ain 
a a22 ... aij 
a2 n 
mA
n
 21
    
 
am1 am 2 aij amn 
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES
1. Vector or Column matrix:
The number of rows may be any integer but the number of
columns is always 1

1   a11 
 4 1  a21 
   3  
2    
am1 
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

2. Vector Or Row matrix :

Any number of columns but only one row

1 1 6 0 3 5 2

 a11 a12 a13  a1n 

 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES
3. Square matrix
The number of rows is equal to the number of columns (R = C)
(a square matrix Am xhas
m an order of m x m).
(R x C) = (2 x 2) ( 3 x 3)
1 1 1
1 1 9 9 0
3 0  
  6 6 1
The principal or main diagonal of a square matrix is composed of all
elements aij for which i=j
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

4. Rectangular matrix
Contains more than one element and number of rows is not
equal to the number of columns RC mn
1 1 
3 7  1 1 1 0 0 
   2 0 3 3 0
7  7   
 
7 6 
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

5. Diagonal matrix
A square matrix where all the elements are zero except those on
the main diagonal top to bottom
3 0 0 0
1 0 0  0 
3 0 0
0 2 0  
  0 0 5 0
0 0 1  
0 0 0 9
i.e. aij =0 for all i = j
aij = 0 for some or all i = j
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

6. Unit or Identity matrix – I ( All 1’s in a diagnol)

A diagonal matrix with all ones on the main diagonal

1 0 0 0
0 
 1 0 0 1 0  aij 0
0 0 1 0 0 1  0 
   aij 
 
0 0 0 1 Remember also:
i.e. aij =0 for all i = j
IA = A
a = 1 for some or all i = j
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

7. Null (zero) matrix – 0 : All elements in the matrix are zero

0  0 0 0 
0  0 0 0 
   
0
0 0 0

aij  0 For all i,j

 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

8. Triangular matrix
A square matrix, whose elements above or below the main
diagonal are all zero

1 0 0  1 0 0  1 8 9
 2 1 0  2 1 0 0 1 6 
     
5 2 3 5 2 3 0 0 3
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

8a. Upper triangular (of number) matrix

A square matrix whose elements below the main diagonal are all zero

1 7 4 4
aij aij aij  1 8 7 0 
  0 1 8   1 7 4
0 aij aij 
  0
0 0 7 8
 0 aij  0 0 3  
0 0 0 3
i.e. aij = 0 for all i > j
 Matrices - Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES

8b. Lower triangular ( of number) matrix

A square matrix whose elements above the main diagonal are all
zero

aij 0 0 1 0 0 
   2 1 0
aij aij 0
 
aij aij aij  5 2 3

i.e. aij = 0 for all i < j
 Matrices – Introduction
TYPES OF MATRICES
9. Scalar matrix- all elements in a diagonal are same
A diagonal matrix whose main diagonal elements are equal to the
same number or scalar
A scalar is defined as a single number or constant

aij 0 0 1 0 0 6 0 0 0
  0 1 0  0 
0 aij 0    6 0 0
0 0 aij  0 0 1
 0 0 6 0
 
i.e. aij = 0 for all i = j 0 0 0 6
aij = a for all i = j
Matrix Operations
 Matrices - Operations

EQUALITY OF MATRICES = All elements of both matrix are

Same
Two matrices are said to be equal only when all corresponding elements
are equal
Therefore their size or dimensions are equal as well
1 0 0  1 0 0 
A=  2 1 0 B=  2 1 0 A=B
   
5 2 3 5 2 3
 Matrices - Operations
Some properties of equality:
•IIf A = B, then B = A for all A and B
•IIf A = B, and B = C, then A = C for all A, B and C

1 0 0  b11 b12 b13 

A=  2 1 0 B=
b b b23 
   21 22

5 2 3 b31 b32 b33 

If A = B then aij  bij

ADDITION & SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES

The sum or difference of two matrices, A and B of the same

size yields a matrix C of the same size

cij  aij  bij

Matrices of different sizes cannot be added or subtracted
 Addition of Matrices - Operations
Problem: Find A + B =?
Also prove
Commutative Law:
A+B=B+A
and
Associative Law:
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C
A B C
2x3 2x3 2x3
7 3  1  1 5 6  8 8 5
 2  5 6     4  2 3    2  7 9 
     
 Matrices - Operations
A+0=0+A=A
Subtraction:
A + (-A) = 0 (where –A is the matrix composed of –aij as elements)

6 4 2 1 2 0 5 2 2 
3 2 7   1 0 8  2 2  1
     
 Scalar Multiplication
SCALAR MULTIPLICATION by a CONSTANT OF MATRICES

Matrices can be multiplied by a scalar (constant or single element)

Let k be a scalar quantity; then
kA = Ak

3  1
Ex. If k=4 and
2 1 
A 
2  3
 
4 1 
 Matrices - Operations
3  1 3  1 12  4 
2 1  2 1  8 4 
4   4   
2  3 2  3  8  12
     
4 1  4 1  16 4 

Properties:
• k (A + B) = kA + kB
• (k + g)A = kA + gA
• k(AB) = (kA)B = A(k)B
• k(gA) = (kg)A
 Multiplication of Matrices

The product of two matrices is another matrix

Two matrices A and B must be conformable for multiplication
to be possible. i.e. Satisfy the that the number of columns of A
must equal the number of rows of B, then we can multiply the
first row of A with first col of B.
Example. Condition for multiplication
A x B = C
(1x3) (3x1) (1x1)
 Multiplication of Matrices
B x A = Not possible!
(2x1) (4x2)

A x B = Not possible!
(6x2) (6x3)

Example
A x B possible! = C
(2x3) (3x2) (2x2)
 Multiplication of Matrices
First check if A(2x3) = B(3 x 2 )
 b11 b12 
 a11 a12 a13     c11 c12 
a   b21 b22    
a 22 a23  c c
 21 b31 b32   21 22 
If A(2x3) = B(3 x 2 ) then we can multiply ist row of A with ist column of B & sum all and
place answer at first column of C. Then multiply ist row with second column and sum all
and place answer at second column of C. Continue this till first Row of A multiply with all
columns of B. Then start the same procedure with second row of A.
(a11  b11 )  (a12  b21 )  (a13  b31 )  c11
(a11  b12 )  (a12  b22 )  (a13  b32 )  c12
(a21  b11 )  (a22  b21 )  (a23  b31 )  c21
(a21  b12 )  (a22  b22 )  (a23  b32 )  c22
Successive multiplication of row i of A with column j of
B – row by column multiplication
 Multiplication of Matrices
A x B = C
4 8
1 2 3     (1 4)  (2  6)  (3  5) (1 8)  (2  2)  (3  3) 
4 2 7  6 2  (4  4)  (2  6)  (7  5) (4  8)  (2  2)  (7  3)
  5 3  
 

31 21
C  
63 57 
Remember also:
IA = A

I x A =A

1 0 31 21 31 21

0 1 63 57  
    63 57 
 Matrices – Operations Properties
Assuming that matrices A, B and C are conformable for
the operations indicated, the following are true:
1. AI = IA = A
2. A(BC) = (AB)C = ABC - (associative law)
3. A(B+C) = AB + AC - (first distributive law)
4. (A+B)C = AC + BC - (second distributive law)
 Matrices – Operations Properties
AB not generally equal to BA

1 2
A 
5 0 
3 4
B 
 0 2 
1 2 3 4  3 8 
AB    0 
5 0  2 15 20


3 4 1 2 23 6
BA    5 
 0 2  0 10 0

Matrices – Operations Properties
If AB = 0, neither A nor B necessarily = 0

1 1  2 3  0 0 
0 0  2  3  0 0
    
 Transpose of a Matrix
–Convert all rows to columns OR Interchange rows and
columns.
If :
2 4 7
A 2 A  3

2x3 5 3 1 
Then transpose of A, denoted by AT is:

 2 5
A 2 A
T 3T
 4 3
7 1

aij  a T
ji For all i and j
 Transpose of a Matrix
To transpose: Interchange rows and columns
The dimensions of AT are the reverse (Not Inverse) of the
dimensions of A

2 4 7 
A 2 A  
3
 2x3
 5 3 1 
2 5
A 3 A
T T2
 4 3 3x2
7 1
 Transpose of a Matrix
Properties of Transposed matrices:
1. (A+B)T = AT + BT
2. (AB)T = BT AT
3. (kA)T = kAT
4. (AT)T = A
 Transpose of a Matrix
1. Prove- (A+B)T = AT + BT
A + B = A+B & (A+B)T
7 3  1  1 5 6  8 8 5 8  2
 2  5 6     4  2 3    2  7 9  8  7
       
5 9 
AT + BT = (A+B)T
7 2  1  4 8  2
 3  5  5  2  8  7 
     
 1 6  6 3  5 9 
 Matrices - Operations
SYMMETRIC MATRICES – when A = AT
A Square matrix is symmetric if it is equal to its transpose:
A = AT

a b 
A 
b d 
a b 
A 
T

 b d 
 Inverse of a Matrix

Consider a scalar k. The inverse is the reciprocal or division of 1

by the scalar.
Example:
k=7 the inverse of k is k-1 = 1/k = 1/7
Division of matrices is not defined, Instead matrix inversion is
used.
So the inverse of a square matrix, A, is the unique matrix A-1 , if it
exists.
where: AA-1 = A-1 A = I
 Matrices - Operations
Example: If Give A and A-1 then prove AA=1 = I = diagnol with all 1

3 1
A 2 A  
2

2 1
1 1  1
A  
 2 3
Because: A-1 A = I
 1  1 3 1 1 0
 2 3  2 1  0 1
   
3 1  1  1 1 0
2 1  2 3   0 1
   
 Matrices - Operations
Properties of the inverse:

( AB) 1  B 1 A1
1 1
(A )  A
T 1 1 T
(A )  (A )
1 1 1
(kA)  A
k
A square matrix that has an inverse is called a nonsingular matrix
A matrix that does not have an inverse is called a singular matrix
Square matrices have inverses except when the determinant is zero
When the determinant of a matrix is zero the matrix is singular
 Determinant of a Matrix
To compute the inverse of a matrix, the determinant is required
Each square matrix A has a determinant, i.e. unit scalar value
called the determinant of A, denoted by det A or |A|

1 2
If A  3 1 
 6 5  A 
1 2
1 2
then A A  (3)(2)  (1)(1)  5
6 5
A  (1)(5)  (6)(2)  7
Determinant of a square matrix
Singular matrix : A matrix whose determinant is zero is called a singular matrix.

Every square matrix has its associated determinant. For example, the
determinant of
5 2 1  5 2 1


0 6 3  is 0 6 3 150
 
8 4 7  8 4 7


The determinant of a matrix is equal to the determinant of its transpose.

A matrix whose determinant is zero is called a singular matrix.

Inverse of a square matrix

If each element of the adjoint of a square matrix A is divided by the

determinant of A then the resulting matrix is called the inverse of A,
denoted by A-1.

1
A 1 
det A
 adjA 

Note: if det A = 0 then the inverse does not exist

Matrices - Operations
 Matrices - Operations
If A = [A] = [a11] is a single element a11 (1x1), then the determinant is
defined as that single value of the element
Then |A| =det A = a11
If A is (n x n), its determinant may be defined in terms of order (n-1)
or less.
 Sub Matrix or Minors
If A is an (n x n) matrix and one row and one column are
deleted, the resulting matrix is an (n-1) x (n-1) called submatrix
of A.
The determinant of such a submatrix is called a minor of A and
is designated by mij , where i and j correspond to the deleted
row and column, respectively.
mij is the minor of the element aij in A.
 Sub Matrix or Minors
eg.
 a11 a12 a13 

A  a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 
Each element in A has a minor
Delete first row and ist column from A .
The determinant of the remaining 2 x 2 submatrix is the minor
of a11. m11 = delete ist row and ist col
a22 a23
m11 
a32 a33
 Sub Matrix or Minors
Therefore the minor of a12 is:

a21 a23
m12 
a31 a33
And the minor for a13 is:

a21 a22
m13 
a31 a32
 CO-Factors

The cofactor Cij of an element aij is defined as:

Cij  (1) i  j mij

When the sum of a row number i = row and column = j, i+j is

even, cij = +mij and when i+j is odd, cij = -mij

c11 (i  1, j  1)  (1)11 m11   m11

1 2
c12 (i  1, j  2)  (1) m12  m12
1 3
c13 (i  1, j  3)  (1) m13   m13
 Matrices - Operations
DETERMINANTS CONTINUED

The determinant of an (n x n) matrix A can now be defined as

A  det A  a11c11  a12 c12    a1n c1n

The determinant of A is therefore the sum of the products of the

elements of the first row of A and their corresponding cofactors.
(It is possible to define |A| in terms of any other row or column
but for simplicity, the first row only is used)
 Derterminant & CO-Factors
Therefore the 2 x 2 matrix :
 a11 a12 
A 
a21 a22 
Has cofactors :
c11  m11  a22  a22
And:
c12  m12   a21   a21

And the determinant of A is:

A  a11c11  a12 c12  a11a22  a12 a21

 Derterminant & CO-Factors
For a 3 x 3 matrix:
 a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 
The cofactors of the first row are:
a22 a23
c11   a22 a33  a23 a32
a32 a33
a21 a23
c12    (a21a33  a23 a31 )
a31 a33
a21 a22
c13   a21a32  a22 a31
a31 a32
 Derterminant & CO-Factors
The determinant of a matrix A is:

A  a11c11  a12 c12  a11a22  a12 a21

Which by substituting for the cofactors in this case is:

A  a11 (a22 a33  a23a32 )  a12 (a21a33  a23a31 )  a13 (a21a32  a22 a31 )
 1 0 1
A   0 2 3
 1 0 1

A  a11 (a22 a33  a23a32 )  a12 (a21a33  a23a31 )  a13 (a21a32  a22 a31 )

A  (1)(2  0)  (0)(0  3)  (1)(0  2)  4

 Derterminant & CO-Factors
A cofactor matrix C of a matrix A is the square matrix of the same
order as A in which each element aij is replaced by its cofactor cij
but not signs.

Example:
 1 2
If A 
  3 4 

 4 3
The cofactor C of A is C   
  2 1 
 ADJOINT - MATRICES adjA  C T

The adjoint matrix of A, denoted by adj A, is the transpose of its

cofactor matrix
adjA  C T

It can be shown that:

A(adj A) = (adjA) A = |A| I

Example:  1 2  4 3
A  C 
  3 4    2 1 
T  4  2
adjA  C   
 3 1 
 ADJOINT - MATRICES
 1 2
A 
 3 4

T 4  2
adjA  C  
3 1 

 1 2 4  2 10 0 
( A)(adjA)         10 I
 3 4 3 1   0 10

4  2  1 2 10 0 
(adjA) A         10 I
3 1   3 4  0 10
 Inverse of a Matrix
adjA
1
Inverse of a Matrix A is A 
A

USING THE ADJOINT MATRIX IN MATRIX INVERSION

Since
AA-1 = A-1 A = I

and
A(adj A) = (adjA) A = |A| I

then 1adjA
A 
A
 Inverse of a Matrix
 1 2 adjA
A 1  ?
Example1: A =   3 4 A
 
Solution:  4  2
AdjA   [ A]  (4 *1  2 * 3)  10
3 1 
 
adjA 11 4  2 0.4  0.2
A 1
  A     
A 10  3 1   0. 3 0. 1 
To check AA-1 = A-1 A = I

1 1 2 0.4  0.2 1 0

AA        I
 3 4 0.3 0.1  0 1
1 0.4  0.2  1 2 1 0
A A      I
0.3 0.1   3 4 0 1
Example 2 3  1 1  Inverse of a Matrix
A  2 1 0 
1 2  1
Sol : Find the determinant of A and Find Cofactor then find Adj of A.
Determinant of A is |A| = + (3)(-1-0) - (-1)(-2-0) + (1)(4-1) = -2
  
signs , for , Cof  C  
  


  

Cofactr A = + (1*-1 - 0) - (-2-0) + (4-1)  1 2 3 
- (-1*-1 – 2) + (3*-1 – 1) - (4-1)  
cof  C   1  4  7
+ (-1* 0 - 1) - (3*0 – 2) + (3- -2*-1)  1 2 5 
 1 1  1
So adjA  C T   2  4 2 
 3  7 5 
 Inverse Of Matrix
We have now
 1 1  1
3  1 1   1 2 3
adjA  C T
  2 4 2 
  cofactor  C   1  4  7  
A  2 1 0     3  7 5 
 1 2 5 
1 2  1

|A| = -2
So

 1 1  1  0.5  0.5 0.5 

1 adjA 1     1.0 2.0  1.0 
A   2  4 2
A 2    
 3  7 5   1.5 3.5  2.5
 Matrices - Operations
The result can be checked using

AA-1 = A-1 A = I

The determinant of a matrix must not be zero for the inverse to

exist as there will not be a solution
Nonsingular matrices have non-zero determinants
Singular matrices have zero determinants
Matrices and Linear Equations
 Linear Equations in Matrix
Linear equations are common and important for survey
problems
Matrices can be used to express these linear equations and
aid in the computation of unknown values
Example
n equations in n unknowns, the aij are numerical coefficients,
the bi are constants and the xj are unknowns

a11 x1  a12 x2    a1n xn  b1

a21 x1  a22 x2    a2 n xn  b2

an1 x1  an 2 x2    ann xn  bn
Solving Linear Equations in Matrix

The equations may be expressed in the form

AX = B
A X B

 a11 a12  a1n   x1   b1 

a21 a22  a2 n   x2  b2 
A , X   , and B 
       
 an1 an1  ann   xn  bn 

nxn nx1 nx1

Number of unknowns = number of equations = n

 Linear Equations
If the determinant is nonzero, the equation can be solved to produce
n numerical values for x that satisfy all the simultaneous equations
To solve, premultiply both sides of the equation by A-1 which exists
because |A| = 0

A-1 AX = A-1 B
Now since
A-1 A = I

We get
X = A-1 B

So if the inverse of the coefficient matrix is found, the unknowns,

X would be determined
Solving Linear Equations by Matrix using X  A 1 B  ?

Example: Find solution set of following 3 equations using X  A 1 B  ?

3x1  x2  x3  2
2 x1  x2  1
x1  2 x2  x3  3
The above equations can be expressed in matrix as as AX = B
A X B
3  1 1   x1  2
 2 1 0   x   1 
  2   
1 2  1  x3  3

Now Find A-1

Solving Linear Equations by Matrix using X  A 1 B  ?

When A-1 is computed the equation becomes

 1 1  1  0.5  0.5 0.5 
1 adjA 1     1.0 2.0  1.0 
A   2  4 2
A 2    
 3  7 5    1.5 3.5  2.5
A-1 B X
Therefore  0.5  0.5 0.5  2  2 
X  A 1 B   1.0 2.0  1.0  1    3
  1.5 3.5  2.5 3  7 
2 x1  2,
X   3 x2  3,
 7  x3  7
 Verifyng Linear Equations by putting 3 values of x
The values for the unknowns should be checked by putting or
substitution back into the initial equations

x1  2, 3  (2)  (3)  (7)  2

3 x1  x2  x3  2
x2  3, 2  (2)  (3)  1
2 x1  x2  1
x3  7 (2)  2  (3)  (7)  3
x1  2 x2  x3  3
END
Matrix Inversion

Simple 2 x 2 case
 Simple 2 x 2 case
Let
and
a b  w x
1
A  A  
c d   y z

Since it is known that

A A-1 = I

then
 a b   w x  1 0 
 c d   y z   0 1 
    
 Simple 2 x 2 case
Multiplying gives

aw  by  1
ax  bz  0
cw  dy  0
cx  dz  1

It can simply be shown that

A  ad  bc
 Simple 2 x 2 case
thus
1  aw
y
b
 cw
y
d
1  aw  cw

b d
d d
w 
da  bc A
 Simple 2 x 2 case
 ax
z
b
1  cx
z
d
 ax 1  cx

b d
b b
x 
 da  bc A
 Simple 2 x 2 case

1  by
w
a
 dy
w
c
1  by  dy

a c
c c
y 
 ad  cb A
 Simple 2 x 2 case

 bz
x
a
1  dz
x
c
 bz 1  dz

a c
a a
z 
ad  bc A
 Simple 2 x 2 case
So that for a 2 x 2 matrix the inverse can be constructed
in a simple fashion as
d b
 A A  1  d  b
1w x   
A     c a  A  c a 
 y z  A
 A 

•Exchange elements of main diagonal

•Change sign in elements off main diagonal
•Divide resulting matrix by the determinant
 Simple 2 x 2 case
Example
2 3
A 
 4 1 
1 1  1  3  0.1 0.3 
A   
10  4 2   0.4  0.2


Check inverse
A-1 A=I

1  1  3 2 3 1 0
       I
10  4 2  4 1 0 1