1

BOOK REVIEW
OR ARTICLE
CRITIQUE
What is a Book Review ?

- A book review is a critical

assessment of a book. It describes
and evaluates the quality and
significance of a book and does not
merely summarize the content.
WHAT IS THE MAIN PURPOSE
OF A BOOK REVIEW?
 11

To help readers decide whether to read

the book themselves. A book review should identify
the central idea of the book, give the reader some
indication of the author's style, approach, or
premises, and then offer an overall evaluation.
COMMON FEATURES IN WRITING A
BOOK REVIEW/ARTICLE CRITIQUE
While book reviews vary in tone, subject, and
style, they share some common features

• A review gives the reader a

concise summary of the content
• A review offers a critical
assessment of the content
• Often recommends whether or
not readers would value the work
for its authenticity and overall
quality
Types of a book review:

• DESCRIPTIVE REVIEW
Presents the content and
structure of a book as possible,
describing essential information
about a book’s purpose and
authority.
• CRITICAL REVIEW
Describes and evaluates the
book in relation to accepted
literary and historical standards
and supports the evaluation
with evidence from the text
and, in most cases, in contrast
to and comparison with the
research of others.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE WRITING A
BOOK REVIEW OR ARTICLE CRITIQUE
 17

IDENTIFY
• Author’s content and
purpose
• Structure
• Audience
 18

EVALUATE
• Accuracy
• Up-to-datedness of the
information
• The sources used to justify
the author’s purpose
 19

RESPOND
• What issues does it raise?
• What issues are omitted?
• The effect of the book
• Your recommendation
WRITING A BOOK REVIEW/ARTICLE
CRITIQUE
BEFORE READING
Consider the questions listed below

• Why has the book been written?

• When was it written?
• What is the scope of the book
• Who is the intended audience?
• How accurate is the author’s
content
• How (well) is evidence used?
• Are there any omissions?
Find out about the author:
• Qualifications
• Background
• Affiliations
• Other works (If any)
DURING READING
• Pay attention to introduction
• Look at the table of contents and
book structure
• Take notes and highlight major
points
AFTER READING
• Use your notes to evaluate the
book
 STRUCTURING THE BOOK
REVIEW/ARTICLE CRITIQUE
 26

Most book reviews are between

100 – 500 words, though an academic
review may go up to 1500.
 At the start, put the complete
bibliographic information: Title in
full, author, place of publication,
publisher, date of publication
edition, number of pages
Your introduction will usually include:

• Your overall impression of the

book
• A statement about the author
• A statement on the purpose of
the book
• A statement of the significance of
the work
The conclusion (last paragraph) includes:

• Your final assessment

• Restatement of overall impression
• (re)statement of your
recommendation
 2

LITERATURE
REVIEW
What is Literature and Review ?

The “literature” of a literature review

refers to any collection of materials on a
topic, not necessarily the great literary
texts of the world. And a "review" does
not necessarily mean that your reader
wants you to give your personal opinion
on whether or not you liked these
sources.
Literature Review
A literature review discusses published
information in a particular subject area,
and sometimes information in a
particular subject area within a certain
time period. A literature review does not
present an original argument. It offers an
overview of what is known about the
topic and to evaluate the strength of the
evidence on that topic.
WHY DO WE WRITE LITERATURE
REVIEW?
• To see what has and has not been
investigated.
• To identify data sources that other
researchers have used
• To demonstrate your understanding, and
your ability to critically evaluate research in
the field.
• To provide evidence that may be used to
support your own findings.
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF A
LITERATURE REVIEW?
The purpose of a literature review is to gain an
understanding of the existing research and debates
relevant to a particular topic or area of study, and to
present that knowledge in the form of a written report.

• Conducting a literature review helps you build your

knowledge in your field.
• Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a
particular topic. If you have limited time to conduct
research, literature reviews can give you an overview or
act as a stepping stone.
• Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a
research paper’s investigation. Comprehensive
knowledge of the literature of the field is essential to
most research papers.
 WHAT SHOULD WE DO BEFORE
WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW?
 1. Clarify
If it is not very specific, seek clarification
from your instructor: Roughly how many
sources should you include? What types
of sources (books, journal articles,
websites)?Should you summarize,
synthesize, or critique your sources by
discussing a common theme or issue?
 2. Find models
Look for other literature reviews in your
area of interest or in the discipline and
read them to get a sense of the types of
themes you might want to look for in
your own research or ways to organize
your final review.
 3. Narrow your topic

There are hundreds or even

thousands of articles and books
on most areas of study.
 4. Consider whether your sources are current.
Some disciplines require that you use
information that is as current as possible.

In the sciences, for instance,

treatments for medical problems
are constantly changing according
to the latest studies.
 Questions to consider when deciding what
information to include in the Literature Review
Here are a few examples of questions to pos
each item that you might include in your rev

• Who funded the research studies?

• Who did the research?
• What was the (political historical, social)
context surrounding this research or
study?
• Pay attention to methodology: is it sound?
• What testing procedures, subjects,
materials were used?
STRATEGY FOR WRITING THE
LITERATURE REVIEW
 Find a focus of a literature review

Like a term paper, it is usually

organized around ideas, not the
sources themselves as an annotated
bibliography would be organized.
THREE BASIC ELEMENTS OF
LITERATURE REVIEW
• An introduction or background
information section

• The body of the review containing the

discussion of sources

• Conclusion and/or recommendations

section to end the paper
 A Good Literature Review will:

• Order articles and books to focus on

unresolved debates, inconsistencies, tensions,
and questions in a research field.
• Summarize the most relevant important
aspects of scientific literature related to your
area of research.
• Synthesize past and current research on the
topic and show how your research fits in.
 A Literature Review has four main objectives:
1. It surveys the literature in your chosen area
of study.
2. It synthesizes the information in that
literature into a summary
3. It critically analyses the information gathered
by identifying gaps in current knowledge; by
showing limitations of theories and points of
view; and by formulating areas for further
research and reviewing areas of controversy.
4. It presents the literature in an organized
way.
WHAT SHOULD LITERATURE
REVIEW INCLUDE?
• Historical background for research

• Current research context; questions,

issues, debates, etc.

• Definition of relevant terminology

• Supporting evidence for a practical

problem/issue.
TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEW
 1. Narrative Literature Review

Critiques the literature and summarizes

the body of a literature. Narrative review
also draws conclusions about the topic
and identifies gaps or inconsistencies in a
body of knowledge.
 2. Systematic Literature Review

Requires more rigorous and well-defined

approach compared to most other types
of literature review. Systematic literature
review is comprehensive and details the
timeframe within which the literature was
selected.
 3. Argumentative Literature Review

As the name implies, examines literature

selectively in order to support or refute an
argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or
philosophical problem already established in the
literature.
 4. Integrative Literature Review

Review critiques, and synthesizes

secondary data about research topic in an
integrated way such that new frameworks
and perspectives on the topic are
generated.
 5. Theoretical Literature Review

Focuses on a pool of theory that has

accumulated in regard to an issue,
concept, theory, phenomena.
At the earlier parts of the literature review chapter, you need to
specify the type of your literature review and provide reasons for
your choice. Your choice of a specific type of literature review
should be based upon your research area, research problem and
research methods. Also, you can briefly discuss other most
popular types of literature review mentioned above.
CITATION
 What is Citation?

A "citation" is the way you tell your readers that

certain material in your work came from another
source. It also gives your readers the information
necessary to find that source again, including:
 Why should I cite sources?
Giving credit to the original author by citing sources is
the only way to use other people's work without
plagiarizing. But there are a number of other reasons
to cite sources:

• Citations are extremely helpful to anyone who

wants to find out more about your ideas and where
they came from
• Not all sources are good or right -- your own ideas
may often be more accurate or interesting than
those of your sources. Proper citation will keep you
from taking the rap for someone else's bad ideas
• Citing sources shows the amount of research you've
done
• Citing sources strengthens your work by lending
outside support to your ideas
IN-TEXT CITATION
 In-text Citation

Include an in-text citation when you refer to, summarize,

paraphrase, or quote from another source. For every in-
text citation in your paper, there must be a
corresponding entry in your reference list.
APA in-text citation style uses the author's last name
and the year of publication, for example: (Field, 2005).
For direct quotations, include the page number as well,
for example: (Field, 2005, p. 14). For sources such as
websites and e-books that have no page numbers, use a
paragraph number. More information on citing sources
without pagination is given on the APA Style web page.
 Example paragraph with in-text citation

A few researchers in the linguistics field have developed

training programs designed to improve native speakers'
ability to understand accented speech (Derwing,
Rossiter, & Munro, 2002; Thomas, 2004). Their training
techniques are based on the research described above
indicating that comprehension improves with exposure
to non-native speech. Derwing et al. (2002) conducted
their training with students preparing to be social
workers, but note that other professionals who work
with non-native speakers could benefit from a similar
program.
 Citing Web Pages In-text citation

Cite web pages in text as you would any other source,

using the author and date if known. If the author is not
known, use the title and the date as the in-text citation
(for long titles just use the first few words). Your in-text
citation should lead your reader to the corresponding
entry in the reference list. For sources with no date use
n.d.(for no date) in place of the year: (Smith, n.d.).
 Below are examples of using in-text citation with web
pages.

Web page with author

In-text citation
• Role-play can help children learn techniques for coping
with bullying (Kraiser, 2011).

Web page with no author

In-text citation
• The term Nittany Lion was coined by Penn State football
player Joe Mason in 1904 ("All things Nittany," 2006).
Web page with no date

In-text citation
• Establishing regular routines, such as exercise, can
help survivors of disasters recover from trauma
(American Psychological Association [APA], n.d.).

General Guidelines
• In-text references should immediately follow the title,
word, or phrase to which they are directly relevant,
rather than appearing at the end of long clauses or
sentences. In-text references should always precede
punctuation marks. Below are examples of using in-
text citation.
Author's name in parentheses

• One study found that the most important element in

comprehending non-native speech is familiarity with
the topic (Gass & Varonis, 1984).

Author's name part of narrative

• Gass and Varonis (1984) found that the most

important element in comprehending non-native
speech is familiarity with the topic.

Group as author:
First citation: (American Psychological Association [APA],
2015)
Subsequent citation: (APA, 2015)
Multiple works
(separate each work with semi-colons)

• Research shows that listening to a particular

accent improves comprehension of accented
speech in general (Gass & Varonis, 1984; Krech
Thomas, 2004).

Direct quote
(include page number and place quotation marks
around the direct quote)

• One study found that “the listener's familiarity

with the topic of discourse greatly facilitates the
interpretation of the entire message” (Gass &
Varonis, 1984, p. 85).

”
Gass and Varonis (1984) found that “the listener’s
familiarity with the topic of discourse greatly facilitates
the interpretation of the entire message”

Works by Multiple Authors

• APA style has specific rules for citing works by multiple

authors. Use the following guidelines to determine
how to correctly cite works by multiple authors in text.
APA IN-TEXT CITATION
Many Social Science disciplines use APA format for citing
sources. The most recent guide is the Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association 6th Edition. See our
additional page to format in-text or parenthetical citations.
The following examples of the most commons types of in-
text citations are adapted from the 6th edition (2010) of
the APA manual.
Book, Single Author

Referring the author in the text: According to Ball (2001),

the earth contains many bright colors (p.10).

Author not referred to in the text: The earth contains

many bright colors (Ball, 2001, p.10).
Book, Multiple Authors
If a work has only two authors

• According to Bird and Martin (2005), Robert

Oppenheimer led a tragic life.

If a work has three, four, or five authors

• Johnson, Lee, and Martin (2010) attempted

this experiment. [first in-text citation]
• Johnson et al (2010) confirmed the number of
participants.

If a work has six or more authors

• Vidal et al (2010) concluded that working in a library is the best

job a student can have.
Works with no author

• When research is completed in a timely manner,

student grades are better ("How To Succeed," 2010).

Corporate author (easily identified by acronym)

• According to the National Institute of Mental Health

(NIMH, 2007), high cholesterol levels are affecting
children as well as adults.
 3

RESEARCH
PAPER
 What is a Research Paper ?

A research paper is a piece of academic

writing based on its author’s original
research on a particular topic, and the
analysis and interpretation of the
research findings . It can be either a
term paper and a master thesis
THE MAIN PURPOSE OF
RESEARCH PAPER
• Research papers help your teachers and
professors better understand your ability to find
information, understand it and re-state the
material in a comprehensible manner.

• People are able to express their creativity and

imagination through words. Academic writing is
virtually the same, but instead of showing your
imagination capabilities, you are expressing your
factual, logical and argumentative knowledge on
a subject matter.
THE FEATURES OF GOOD
RESEARCH PAPER
• Good research paper should be systematic.

• Good research paper should be logical.

• Good research paper should be relevant

according to research.

• Good research paper should have the ability

to do research in the control manner.

• Good research paper should have the ability

to reduce the bias of the data.
• Good research paper should have the ability to
maximize the reliability of the data.

• Good research paper should have the ability to

collect maximum information.

• Good research paper should have the ability to

reduce the experiment error.

• Good research paper should have the ability to

develop different aspect of the research problem.

• Good research paper should have the ability to

solve a particular problem and a single research
design cannot solve the
different problems.
IMPORTANT CONTENTS OF A
RESEARCH PAPER
(SIX MAIN CHAPTERS)
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

• Background of the Study

• Statement of the Problem
• Scope and Delimitation
• Limitations of the Study
• Significance of the Study
• Definition of Terms
Background of the Study

The background of your study will provide context

to the information discussed throughout
the research paper. Background information may
include both important and relevant studies. It links
introduction to your research topic and ensures a
logical flow of ideas.
 Writing a Background of the Study
• Begin by giving a general overview of your thesis topic
and introduce the main ideas you will be making use
of throughout your thesis.

• Then, give the detailed and precise information about

all the methodologies used in the research. This can
take up to several paragraphs depending on the
individual and research question or thesis topic.

• Cite your sources where necessary to avoid plagiarism.

• Then you can introduce the experiment by describing

your choice of methodology briefly, why you have
decided to use this methodology instead of others and
the objective of the methodology .
Statement of the Problem
Is a concise description of an issue to be addressed or a
condition to be improved upon. It identifies the gap
between the current state and desired state of a process
and use in research work as a claim that outlines the
problem addressed by a study. The statement of the
problem briefly addresses the question: What is the
problem that the research will address?
 Writing a Statement of the Problem

• Get each person to write his or her own problem

statement without conferring. Compare each of the
sentences/ looking for common themes and wording.
• Start to write an improved statement using the common
themes.
• Ensure that the problems include the customer’s
perspective.
• Ensure that the statement focuses on existing problems.
• Try to include the time frame over which the problem
has been occurring.
• Try to quantify the problem. If you do not have the data
to hand, defer writing the final problem statement until
you have been able to quantify the problem.
Scope and Delimitation
Scope and delimitation are two elements of a research
paper. The scope identifies what topic the researcher
intends to cover. The scope names the information or
subject matter that the individual plans to evaluate and
delimitations define what factors the researcher
consciously controls for and why they have been
eliminated from the study.
 Writing a Scope of Delimitation

Sample phrases that help express the scope of the

study:
• The coverage of this study
• The study consists of
• The study covers the
• This study is focus on

Sample phrases that expressed the delimitations of the

study

• The study does not cover the

• The researcher limited this research to
• This study is limited to
Limitations of the Study

Characteristics of design or methodology that impacted or

influenced the interpretation of the findings from your
research.

Writing a Limitation of the Study

• Identify the limitations;

• Explain how they impact your study; and
• Propose a direction for future studies and present
alternatives. By following this sequence when
discussing your study’s limitations,

you will be able to clearly demonstrate your study’s

weakness without undermining the quality and integrity
of your research.
Significance of the Study
It provides details to the reader on how the study will
contribute such as what the study will contribute and who
will benefit from it. It also includes an explanation of the
work's importance as well as its potential benefits.

Writing a Significance of the Study

• Refer to the statement of the problem

• Write from general to specific contribution

Definition of Terms

Defines technical terms based on how they are

used in the study, specifically in the title. This aims
to provide the readers or future researches with
the basic terminologies that are important to
understand the paper.
 Writing a Definition of Terms

• Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or

unique meanings in the study are defined
• Terms should be defined operationally
• The researcher may develop his own definition from
the characteristics of the term defined.
• Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books,
magazines and newspaper articles, dictionaries, and
other publications but the researcher must
acknowledge his sources.
• Definitions should be brief, clear, and unequivocal as
possible.
Acronyms should always be spelled out fully especially
if it is not commonly known or if it is used for the first
time
 Demographic Profile

Defined as statistical data about the characteristics of

a population, such as the age, gender and income of the
people within the population. When the census
assembles data about people's ages and genders it includes;

• age race, ethnicity, gender, marital status, income, education,

and employment etc.
 Theoretical Conceptual Framework

Is used to limit the scope of the relevant

data by focusing on specific variables and defining
the specific viewpoint (framework) that the
researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting
the data to be gathered, understanding concepts
and variables according to the given definitions.
 CHAPTER 2: Review of Related
Literature and Studies
The process of collecting, selecting and reading books,
journals, reports, abstracts and other reference
materials. An overview of sources you have explored
while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate
to your readers how your research fits into the larger
field of study.

• It describes how the proposed research is related to

prior research in statistics.
• It shows the originality and relevance of your research
problem. Specifically, your research is different from other
statisticians.
• It justifies your proposed methodology.
• It demonstrates your preparedness to complete the
research.
 Writing a Review of Related Literature and Studies

• Review APA guidelines

• Decide on a topic
• Identify the literature that you will review
• Analyze the literature
• Summarize the literature in table or concept
map format
• Synthesize the literature prior to writing your
review
• Writing the review
• Developing a coherent essay
 CHAPTER 3: Methodology
You will have to discuss the methods you used to do your
research. The methodology or methods section explains
what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to
evaluate the reliability and validity of the research.

It should include;
• The type of research you did
• How you collected and/or selected your data
• How you analyzed your data
• Any tools or materials you used in the research
• Your rationale for choosing these methods
 Writing a Methodology

• Explain your methodological approach

• Describe your methods of data collection
• Describe your methods of analysis
• Evaluate and justify your methodological choices
Chapter 4: Presentation , Analysis , Interpretation
of Data

Presentation of Data

Is the process of organizing data into

logical, sequential and meaningful
categories and classifications to make them
amenable to study and interpretation.
Writing a Presentation of Data

1. Textual - Statements with numerals or

numbers that serve as supplements to tabular
presentation.
2. Tabular - A systematic arrangement of
related idea in which classes of numerical
facts or data are given each row and their
subclasses are given each a column in order to
present the relationships of the sets or
numerical facts or data in a definite, compact
and understandable form.
3. Graphical – A chart representing the
quantitative variations or changes of variables
in pictorial or diagrammatic form.
Analysis of Data
The process of breaking up the whole study into its
constituent parts of categories according to the specific
questions under the statement of the problem.

Writing a analysis of Data

• Describe and summarize the data and identify

relationships between variables
• Compare variables
• Identify the difference between variables •
forecast outcomes
Interpretation of Data

Refers to the implementation of processes

through which data is reviewed for the purpose of
arriving at an informed conclusion. The
interpretation of data assigns a meaning to the
information analyzed and determines its
signification and implications.
.
Writing a Interpretation of Data

• Collect your data and make it as clean as possible.

• Choose the type of analysis to perform: qualitative or
quantitative, and apply the methods respectively to
each.
• Qualitative analysis: observe, document and interview
notice, collect and think about things.
• Quantitative analysis: you lead a research with a lot of
numerical data to be analyzed through various
statistical methods – mean, standard deviation or
frequency distribution for instance.
• Take a step back: and think about your data from
various perspectives, and what it means for various
participants or actors of the project.
• Reflect on your own thinking and reasoning: and be
aware of the many pitfalls data analysis and
interpretation carries.
 Chapter 5: General Conclusion

This is the last chapter of the research, which includes an overview of the
research. It consists of the restatement of the problem, the procedures
and the findings.

Conclusion
Is intended to help the reader understand why your
research should matter to them after they have finished reading
the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or
a re-statement of your research problem but a synthesis of key
points.

Recommendation
Are based on the results of your research and indicate the specific
measures or directions that can be taken.
 Writing a Conclusion and Recommendation

• Be written to relate directly to the aims of the project as

stated in the Introduction
• Indicate the extent to which the aims have been
achieved
• Summarize the key findings, outcomes or information in
your report
• Acknowledge limitations and make recommendations
for future work (where applicable)
• Highlight the significance or usefulness of your work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF
REASEARCH PAPER
Bibliography
It is an alphabetical list of source and materials that have been used
in the study. It enables the reader to have a scholarly grasp of the
study. This part may be divided into books, periodicals, documents
and unpublished works.

Examples;

APA STYLE
Nunn, G. D., & Jantz, P. B. (2009). Factors within response to
intervention implementation training associated with teacher efficacy
beliefs. Education, 129(4), 599-607. Available at
http://www.projectinnovation.biz/education_2006.html

MLA Style
Dean, Cornelia. "Executive on a Mission: Saving the Planet." New York
Times. New York Times, 22 May 2007. Web. 25 May 2009.
HOW TO WRITE A
RESEARCH PAPER
 1. Choose a Topic
If your topic is too broad, your research
paper is unlikely to be successful because
it will look like a general overview. You
should narrow your topic down to a
certain aspect, concept or idea and make
it specific and manageable.
 2. Write a Working Thesis Statement
Prepare a working thesis before you actually organize
your research because it will guide your investigation
and will help you stay focused on your subject. Your
thesis statement should be concise and reflect the type
of paper you are writing. All research papers can be
divided into 3 categories:

• Argumentative or persuasive if you are arguing the

conclusion;
• Expository when you explain information;
• Analytical when you present your analysis of certain
information.
 3. Do Research on Your Topic
You should find enough secondary and
primary credible sources on the subject
of your paper, carefully read all of them,
and find relevant evidence to support
your thesis. At this stage, you should
evaluate your sources, take notes, and
start documenting your sources
according to a citation style specified by
your instructor
 4. Make a Good Outline
Think about key points that you’ll need
to develop to support your thesis
statement. You can use them as
subheadings for the body of your paper.
Look through your notes and organize
the information under each sub-
heading. Make sure you include only
relevant information that fits under
your sub-headings and directly supports
your thesis.
Note:
You should resist the temptation to
include any information that doesn’t fit
into your outline no matter how
interesting it is.
When writing an outline, you should keep
in mind a typical research paper structure
that commonly includes:
• a title page;
• an abstract;
• an introduction;
• a methodology section;
• findings/results;
• discussion;
• conclusion.
 5. Create the First Draft
This is the middle of the process. You have a clear
direction and its time to create the first draft with a
title, in-text citations, and a reference page.

- It forms their view on what exactly they

should expect in your paper. You should list
the keywords that present the topic of your
paper, methods you used, and results that you
achieved. Create a sentence that includes all
the keywords that you have listed and delete
the unnecessary words.
You need to write an introduction, body
paragraphs, and a conclusion. These
are the main parts of your paper so let
us provide you with some details on
how to do it right.
HOW TO WRITE AN INTRODUCTION
FOR A RESEARCH PAPER
Start writing an intro. The introductory paragraph
should begin with an attention grabber that may
be:
• a provocative
• question;
• statistics;
• an anecdote;
• unusual facts, etc.
Provide the background information, explain your
goals, and how you plan to approach your research
paper topic. You should finish your introduction with
your thesis statement or research question. This
section of your paper is not long so you are sure to
finish it fast.
HOW TO WRITE BODY
PARAGRAPHS
Your outline will help you to complete this
part of your paper. But you shouldn’t think
that you must strictly follow it. It may evolve
and you are free to revise it and make
changes. The key thing is to stay on your
track and focus on your thesis. You should
provide your points and support your main
idea.
Start each body paragraph with a topic
sentence and provide arguments and
relevant evidence to support it. You
should write as many body paragraphs as
you have the key points.
HOW TO WRITE A CONCLUSION
FOR A RESEARCH PAPER
 Most research papers end with
restarting their thesis statements. You can
also do it but you shouldn’t repeat it word
for word. Paraphrase it or summarize the
key points of your paper. You may
emphasize the significance of your
findings as well. A good idea is to provide
some recommendations based on the
results of your investigation or suggest
some directions for further research.
REVISE, EDIT AND
PROOFREAD
You have to make large-scale changes and
check the logic, flow, transitions, make
changes in the structure and order of your
paragraphs. You should make sure that all
your ideas are fully developed and all the
claims are supported by credible
evidence. You may need to add some
section headings.
Check and eliminate filler words and phrases,
improve word choice, and correct mistakes in
punctuation and grammar if you find any. You
should look for:

• incomplete sentences;
• dangling modifiers;
• easily confused words (such as to, too,
and two);
• spelling mistakes;
• apostrophes for possessives and
plurals;
• quotation rules obeyed;
• comma use;
• eliminate contractions.
evaluate your argument, transitions, and
the balance and look for any
inconsistencies with usage, grammar or
mechanics.
7 MOST POPULAR TYPES OF
RESEARCH PAPERS
• Argumentative papers
• Analytical papers
• Definition papers
• Compare and contrast papers
• Cause and effect papers
• Reports
• Interpretive papers
ARGUMENTATIVE PAPER
Present two sides of a controversial
issue in the one paper. A good
argumentative paper will include in-
text citations from researchers that
present logical facts from both sides of
an issue, and will conclude with the
author analyzing the pros and cons of
each argument.
ANALYCTICAL PAPERS
Include information from a range of sources
but the focus on this type of research paper is
in analyzing the different
viewpoints represented from a factual rather
than opinionated standpoint. The author of
an analytical paper may focus on the
findings, methodology or conclusions of
other researchers and will conclude such a
paper with a summation of the findings and a
suggested framework for further study on the
issue.
DEFINITION PAPERS
Relatively self-explanatory. They describe a
topic from a factual standpoint that is
usually devoid of emotion or the opinion of
the author.

Although the definition research paper will

include facts from a variety of sources, this
information is left unanalyzed and contains
only actual facts found in another's research
paper findings.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST PAPER
It is often used in literature courses
to compare two different authors, or stories
from a particular genre. However they can
also be required in social sciences to compare
two different theoretical viewpoints;
The important part of a compare and
contrast paper is that while both elements in
the paper need to be described succinctly,
the main part of the paper will be the
comparison and contrasting examples
provided by the author to support a thesis.
CAUSE AND EFFECT PAPERS

It traces the probable or expected results

from a particular action or policy in a logical
progression that is easily followed by the
reader. Used in business and education fields
in particular a good cause and effect
paper will not only outline the predicted
results from the action/situation specified,
but also where applicable show the range of
results that could arise from this one
situation through to its logical conclusion.
REPORTS

Often follow a memorandum or similar

business format and they are often written to
outline a case study situation.
The report would include a summary of the
situation to date; an identification of the
main issue or concern; a breakdown of the
elements of this main issue and then
recommendations on how to address the
issue based on research on the topic.
INTERPRETATIVE PAPERS

The key element of an interpretive paper is

evidence that the student has written the
paper based on an established theoretical
framework and has used supporting data to
back up the thesis statement and findings of
the paper.
 4

PROJECT
PROPOSAL
What is a Project Proposal?

• A project proposal is the

document that facilitates a
professional relationship
between an organization
and outside contributors.
• A project proposal is also the
marketing document that kicks
off a relationship between an
organization and outside project
stakeholders
What a project proposal is not

• A project proposal is not a

contract. It’s easy to confuse it
with a Business Proposal (a
document in which legal terms
are outlined).
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE/IMPORTANCE OF
A PROJECT PROPOSAL
• A project proposal is a document
that is used to convince a sponsor
that a project needs to be kicked-
off to solve a particular business
problem or opportunity. It
describes in depth, how
the project is going to be
commenced so that the sponsor
understands what is involved
early.
WHY DO YOU NEED A PROJECT
PROPOSAL?
• First and foremost, a proposal is required
to get executive buy-in for a new project,
program, or service at your organization.
• Secondly, it is used to get everyone on the
team thinking about the same goals and
priorities.
• Lastly, it serves as as way for the
organization to know when they need to
make new hiring decisions or budget
adjustments.
WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF A CLEAR
PROJECT PROPOSAL
 1. Establishes Project Viability
Clear proposals prove the viability of a
project or program.

2. Clarifies Expectations

Increase clarity regarding requirements

and project roadmap.
 3. Creates Structure
Structure and organization is established
up front, reducing the chance for
misalignment.

4. Increases Budget
Successful proposals lead to approved
budgets and financial support for
organizational growth and project
replication.
 5. Fuels Business Growth
Proposals play an integral part in
organizational growth, helping in budget
approval and new client adoption.

6. Exposes the Brand

Reaching out to stakeholders and
building alliances increases credibility
and exposure in the community at large
 7. Ensures Future Success

Having detailed your project’s methods

and measurement tools in advance
builds accountability into every step of
your work.
FIVE IMPORTANT FEATURES OF A
PROJECT PROPOSAL
 1. Compelling Content

You should indicate how the work will be

done and stick to the project requirements.
Clearly define your areas of expertise,
share your portfolio, and give them a
feeling that you know what you are talking
about. Note that some lazy competitors
don’t even bother adding a proposal to
their bid, so this is an added advantage.
 2. Flawless Language

This is also important for project

discussion because dealing with language
barriers can be quite the challenge.
 3. Client-Focused

In this regard, you should try to

customize your proposal to suit every
client. Generic bids are mostly ignored as
some employers place caveats within the
project, asking bidders to include some
specific details, which are then used to
weed out individuals who don’t bother
reading. Also, be human and start your
proposal with a salutation.
 4. Pricing
Unfortunately, not many people will pay
attention to your qualifications if you quote
way above the proposed budget. On the other
hand, you might be showcasing your
desperation and telling the client you don’t
care for quality if you bid too low. Unless the
project is sealed, compare the prices of other
qualified bidders and be strategic. Don't bid
too low or too high. Note that some employers
don’t mind paying a premium for quality work;
it depends on how you package your proposal
and trigger negotiation with the client.
5. Brief and to the point

Say as much as you want to say about

yourself in just a few sentences; a
paragraph is long enough. You can then
request the client to contact you on chat
for more details. Reading long essays
may be overwhelming, considering that
some projects attract hundreds of bids in
minutes.
KNOW WHAT TYPES OF PROJECT
PROPOSAL ARE YOU WRITING
 1. FORMALLY SOLICITED

A formally solicited project proposal is

made in response to an official request
for a proposal.

2. INFORMALLY SOLICITED
Informally solicited project proposals are
the same as formally solicited ones,
except the information they are based on
isn’t set out in a specific document.
 3. UNSOLOCITED
Unsolicited project proposals are the
project equivalent of cold calls– nobody
asked to receive one, but (if you’ve done
your homework) it can still provide a ton
of value.
4. CONTINUATION
Are by far and away the easiest to write,
since these are essentially
reminders/updates for ongoing (and
already approved) projects.
 5. RENEWAL
This can be written to make the case for
its continued support

6. SUPPLEMENTAL

is required when you need to ask for extra

resources for a project (beyond those
originally proposed).
HOW TO WRITE A PROJECT PROPOSAL?
• Define your audience
• Know what problem the proposal
tackles
• Research the current state of the
issue
• Clearly define the proposal
• Predict the effect this will have
• Assess the time and resources this
will take
• Create an outline of the document
PROJECT PROPOSAL OUTLINE
 1.Project Information
This section intends to provide a high-
level picture of the project as well as
convey the most critical project details.
This includes the following:
• Name of the Organization
• Project Title
• Project Summary
• Project Timeframe
• Prepared By
• Attached Documentation
 2. Project Summary
The goal of this section is to present the
reasons for doing this project as well as
stating all of the objectives. In this
section in particular, it is very important
to write concisely and clearly. Some
project professionals even suggest
writing the project summary last.
 Before you begin writing, you should be able to
answer the following questions:

• Why are you doing this project?

• What will you be doing?
• How will you be doing it?
• Who will be doing it?
• Where will it be done?
• How long will it take?
• How much will it cost?
 a) Project Background

This section of the proposal requires a

few succinct sentences that clarify the
problem your proposal is tackling. Here,
it is critical to explain the current state of
the problem and why your audience
should care about solving it. Make sure
to include references and statistics in this
section. Best practice is to keep this no
longer than 1 page.
 b) Project Objectives

Use this section of the proposal to

explicitly list the goals that the project is
trying to achieve.
 3. Project Methodology

The project methodology section of a

proposal is where you detail the plan for
how the objectives mentioned in the
previous section will be achieved.
This section is typically broken into three parts:

a) The Project Approach Summary

Use a few sentences to describe the

overall approach to the project. This
includes how the team will be
organized, what tools will be used,
and how changes will be addressed
during execution.
 b) Task Breakdown and Time Estimates

This is the section of the proposal where a

detailed project schedule is presented.

c) Project Deliverables

This is where you list out all the

deliverables you expect to see after the
project is closed.
 4. Project Risk Management

This section is dedicated to managing

change during project execution. Clients
know that a proposal rarely covers
everything that is required to achieve the
given project, so change management
techniques are required. Establish how
you will monitor project success
throughout its entire life cycle to show
clients that when and if change occurs,
the project will not go haywire.
 This section is broken into two parts:

a) Risk Management Plan

A detailed plan of action to minimize the
chance of risk or change during the
project lifecycle.
b) Risk Register

A line-item list of risks and potential

counter efforts that will be used to
counteract these risks.
 5. Project Costs

This section is dedicated to estimating

the overall cost of the proposed project.
 This broken into three major parts:

a) Project Budget

Should be a detailed, line-item budget

broken up by different project categories,
such as travel, salary, or supplies. Ensure
all overhead or indirect costs are also
included in the budget.
 b) Budget Narrative
This is a brief list of commentaries on the
budget if any further clarification or
justification is needed.

c) Additional Financial Statements

Some projects, depending on complexity,

will require additional financial
statements like a profit and loss
statement, a tax return, or funding
sources.
 6. Conclusion
The conclusion section of a project
proposal intends to be a brief review of
all the points already discussed.
 7. Appendix
This section is dedicated to any additional
charts, graphs, images, or reports that
were cited in the proposal.
 Final thoughts in a Project Proposal:

• Determine your project proposal type

first for an effective presentation.
• Make sure your proposal targets your
audience and clearly defines the
problems it will solve.
• Follow the seven sections of a proposal
to more effectively convince your
audience
 Tips to write a successful project proposal

• Plan ahead.
• Make it a team effort.
• Be realistic in what you are proposing. Be a learning
organization.
• Be factual and specific.
• Limit technical and organzational jargon Call the donor
if you have questions.
• Clarify partner’s roles and responsibilities.
• Be aware of donor priorities Use action words when
writing your proposal
 5

POSITION
PAPER
 What is a Position Paper ?
A position paper presents an arguable opinion about an
issue. The goal of a position paper is to convince the
audience that your opinion is valid and worth listening
to. Ideas that you are considering need to be carefully
examined in choosing a topic, developing your
argument, and organizing your paper. It is very
important to ensure that you are addressing all sides of
the issue and presenting it in a manner that is easy for
your audience to understand. Your job is to take one side
of the argument and persuade your audience that you
have well-founded knowledge of the topic being
presented. It is important to support your argument with
evidence to ensure the validity of your claims, as well as
to address the counterclaims to show that you are well
informed about both sides.
 PURPOSE OF
POSITION PAPER
The purpose of a position paper is to
generate support on an issue. It describes
the author’s position on an issue and the
rational for that position and, in the same
way that a research paper incorporates
supportive evidence, is based on facts that
provide a solid foundation for the author’s
argument. It is a critical examination of a
position using facts and inductive
reasoning, which addresses both strengths
and weaknesses of the author’s opinion.
An author who writes a position paper is
making an argument which has to be built
upon evidence. The structure used to do this is
very similar to that used when writing a critical
essay.
 THE CLASSIC POSITION PAPER
CONTAINS THREE MAIN ELEMENTS
An Introduction, which identifies the issue that will be
discussed and states the author’s position on that
issue.

The Body of the paper, which contains the central

argument and can be further broken up into three
unique sections:
• Background information
• Evidence supporting the author’s position
• A discussion of both sides of the issue, which
addresses and refutes arguments that contradict
the author’s position

A Conclusion, restating the key points and, where

applicable, suggesting resolutions to the issue.
GUIDELINES IN WRITING A
POSITION PAPER
 To take a side on a subject, you should first establish the
plausibility of a topic that interests you. Ask yourself the
following questions to ensure that you will be able to
present a strong argument

 Is it a real issue, with genuine controversy and

uncertainty?
 Can you distinctly identify two positions?
 Are you personally interested in advocating
one of these positions?
 Is the issue narrow enough to be manageable?
Once your topic is selected, you should do some research on the subject
matter. While you may already have an opinion on your topic and an idea
about which side of the argument you want to take, you need to ensure
that your position is well supported. Listing out the pro and con sides of the
topic will help you examine your ability to support your counterclaims,
along with a list of supporting evidence for both sides. Supporting evidence
includes the following:

 Factual Knowledge - Information that is

verifiable and agreed upon by almost everyone.
 Statistical Inferences - Interpretation and
examples of an accumulation of facts.
 Informed Opinion - Opinion developed through
research and/or expertise of the claim.
 Personal Testimony - Personal experience
related by a knowledgeable party
 In considering the audience, ask yourself the
following questions:

 Who is your audience?

 What do they believe?
 Where do they stand on the issue?
 How are their interests involved?
 What evidence is likely to be effective
with them?
SAMPLE OUTLINE FOR A
POSITION PAPER
I. INTRODUCTION

A. Introduce the topic

B. Provide background of the topic
C. Assert the thesis (your view of
the issue)
II. COUNTER ARGUMENT

A. Summarize the counterclaims

B. Provide supporting information
for counterclaims
C. Refute the counterclaims
D. Give evidence for argument
III. YOUR ARGUMENT

A. ASSERT POINT OF YOUR CLAIMS

1. Give your opinion
2. Provide support
IV. CONCLUSION

A. RESTATE YOUR ARGUMENT

B. PROVIDE A PLAN OF ACTION