Micro-minerals

Made Astawan
Dept. of Food Science & Technology
Bogor Agricultural University
 Iron
 Iron is an essential element in all cells of the body.
 As a component of hemoglobin, myoglobin, and the
enzymes cytochrome oxidase, peroxidase and catalase,
iron plays a key role in oxygen transport and cellular
respiration.

Iron is needed to make new cells, amino acids,

hormones, and neurotransmitters.
Only small amounts are lost on a daily basis
Body can increase or decrease absorption depending
on body supply
Iron deficiency anemia is characterized by low blood
hemoglobin
– results in weakness, apathy, intolerance to cold
 Iron
Most of iron is component of hemoglobin
in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle cells
Hemoglobin - oxygen carrying protein of blood
Myoglobin - oxygen holding protein of
muscle
Iron helps hold and release oxygen
Storage
– Liver, bone marrow & spleen in the form of ferritin
Absorption
- Facilitated by ascorbic acid
- Inhibited by phytic acid, lack of gastric secretion
Iron-Kinetics
 Iron Sources
 Heme Iron
 Iron bound to heme, the iron containing
part of hemoglobin and myoglobin in meat,
fish and poultry
 more readily absorbed

 Nonheme Iron
 Mostly found in plants
 Not readily absorbed.

 Consumed with chicken, fish and meat,

absorption increases.
 Vitamin C also increases absorption
 Iron Utilization
 Absorbed in the duodenum
via luminal iron binding
proteins across the intestinal mucosa.

 Requires gastric acid to create an acidic pH, in

order to convert ferric iron to ferrous iron, the
form that is absorbed.

 Significant amounts of iron may be lost from the

body during GI bleeding, heavy menstruation, and
during certain surgical procedures with heavy
blood loss.
 Function of Iron
 Necessary cofactor in many enzymatic reactions used to
metabolize glucose and fatty acids.

 Hemoglobin and myoglobin synthesis.

HGB RBC protein to transport oxygen
Mgb  muscle protein to store oxygen

 Hemoglobin is comprised of heme, which consists of

iron, and the protein, globin.

 Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to the

tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
 Functions of Iron

 About 70 - 75% of the body’s iron is bound to

hemoglobin and myoglobin, while 25 - 30% is stored as
ferritin and hemosiderin in the liver, bone, marrow, and
spleen.

 Iron is transported in the serum bound to

transferrin, which represents about 1% of the body’s
iron levels.

 After approximately 120 days, RBC catabolize and

release hemoglobin and iron, which are taken up by
transferrin and transported to the bone marrow for
the formation of HGB and new RBC.
 Hemoglobin (Hb)

• 98.5% of oxygen is transported bound to Hb.

1.5% remaining oxygen is carried dissolved in plasma
• 23% of carbon dioxide transported as
carbaminohemoglobin
• HB releases oxygen when plasma level are low and binds
carbon dioxide when its concentration is high (peripheral
capillaries). This process is reversed in the lungs.
 Hemoglobin (Hb)

• Accounts for over 95% of intracellular

proteins.
• Functions in transport of respiratory
gases:
- oxyhemoglobin (transport oxygen)
- carbaminohemoglobin (transports carbon dioxide)
• Quaternary shape – four polypeptide chains each with
heme group (pigment complex containing iron ion)
• Binding of oxygen is weak and reversible
 Iron Deficiency
Cause of iron deficiency is usually poor iron
intake
Diet with low bioavailable iron, such as
vegetarians or infants who are not
supplemented or given iron fortified cereal or
formula after the age of six months.

Nonnutritional cause is blood loss

– 80% of iron in body is in blood
– Women require more iron than men due
to menstrual losses
 Iron Deficiency
Iron deficiency is one of the most prevalent nutritional
problems in the world, with the following populations
most susceptible:
• Pregnant women who have not been taking
iron supplements.
• Infants and children
• Menstruating females
• Older adults
normal blood iron deficiency anemia

http://pathy.med.nagoya-u.ac.jp/atlas http://pathy.med.nagoya-u.ac.jp/atlas

 Anemia
• The reduced ability to deliver oxygen
• Anemias may result from:
1. abnormal hemoglobin
2. decreased number of RBCs
3. decreased hemoglobin

1. Anemia due to abnormal Hb:

- Sickle cell anemia: due to abnormal hemoglobin (genetic)
- Thalassemia: due to inability to produce Hb chains
 cells production is slow
 cells are fragile and have short life span
(genetic)
2. Anemia due to decreased number
of RBCs:
- Hemolytic anemia:
RBCs have short survival period and bone marrow can
not compensate. May be caused by disease, genetic
RBC disorders (such as sickle cell), toxins, drugs,
mismatched blood.

- Aplastic anemia: due to failure of bone

- Hemorragic anemia: result from blood loss

3. Anemia due to decreased Hb:
- Iron deficiency anemia: decreased iron in diet or

impairment of iron metabolism

- Pernicious anemia: due to deficiency of vit B12.

Must have intrinsic factor, which is produced by the

stomach, in order to absorb B12. If intrinsic factor is

lacking vit B12 can be administered by intramuscular

injection.
 Clinical Signs of Anemia

 Weakness, fatigue, poor work performance, and

changes in behavior.

 Physical signs include pallor, fatigue, coldness and

paresthesia of the extremities, greater susceptibility
to infections, and anemia, particularly microcytic
and hypochromic cells due to the decreased
production of hemoglobin in an iron depleted
individual.

 Infants and young children with iron deficiency may

have low IQ levels resulting in learning and
behavioral problems.
 RBC Life Span
• Life span of about 120 days mostly due to mechanical stresses
placed on cell (replacement rate is about 1% per day or about 3
million cells/second).
• Damaged or “worn out” RBC’s are phagocytized in the liver,
spleen and bone marrow.
- Amino acid portion of HB is reduced to amino acids
- Heme portion is stripped of iron and is ultimately converted to
bilirubin.
Bilirubin released into blood and absorbed by hepatocytes.
- Jaundice: excessive amounts of and/or accumulation of bilirubin
in body. Produces an yellow discoloration of skin and mucous
membranes.
 Iron Treatment
Recommendations

Iron-rich foods:
– Meat, fish, poultry, eggs
– Organ meats
– Peas and beans
– Dried fruit
– Whole grain and enriched cereal

Iron requirements in pregnancy:

– 30 mg/day
 Iron Toxicity
Once absorbed, Iron is difficult to excrete
Intestinal cells can trap and hold Iron which
then get shed and excreted in feces
Free iron is a powerful oxidant that can start
free radical reactions that damage cellular
structures
UL is 45 mg/d
Protein carriers normally bind to iron and
keep it away from vulnerable body
compounds.
 Iron Toxicity
Finnish study suggested a link between
increased risk for heart disease and
elevated blood iron stores in men
High blood levels of iron doubled the
risk of heart attack
Argument against food fortification with
iron is it might put people at risk for iron
overload.
Iron suppl. can be lethal for children
 Iodine

Iodine is part of thyroxine, a hormone

produced by the thyroid gland.
Thyroxine is responsible for regulating
the basal metabolic rate.
When blood concentrations of Iodine are
low, the thyroid gland enlarges in an
attempt to trap more Iodine
Goiter is enlargement of thyroid gland
due to iodine deficiency
 Iodine
Iodine deficiency results in sluggishness and weight gain
During pregnancy severe Iodine deficiency causes extreme and
irreversible retardation in infants = cretinism
Iodine deficiency is one of most common causes of mental
retardation

Sources - Seafood, Iodized salt, bread

Goitrogens: cabbage, turnip & hard water
RDA is 150 mg/d; UL is 1000 mg/d
Large amounts are poisonous
Iodine & IQ
• Brain: 2-3% of body weight
• Two part:
- cerebrum  70%
- cerebellum  30%
Synthesis of the thyroid hormones
OH I- OH I- OH
I2 I2
I I I

iodinase iodinase

CH2 CH2 CH2

HN CH C O HN CH C O HN CH C O

tyrosine mono-iodotyrosine di-iodotyrosine

in thyroglobulin in thyroglobulin in thyroglobulin
coupling
enzyme
OH OH OH
I I I I I

Deiodinease is
O Se-dependent O O
I I de-iodinase I proteolysis I I
I
and
secretion

CH2 CH2 CH2

+H N
3 CH COO- +H N CH Coo- HN CH C O
3
tri-iodothyronine (T3)

thyroxine (T4)
Figure.Three women of the himalayas with typical
endemic goiters.
Figure.
An adult male from the
Congo, with three women
of the same age (17-20
years), all of whom are
myxedamatous cretins.
 Zinc
Zinc functions as a required cofactor for over
200 metalloenzymes;
Zinc is an essential component of the
endogenous storage forms of pancreatic
insulin;
Zinc play a very important role in RNA and DNA
metabolism;
Zinc is essential for immune system, growth
and sex hormones;
Zinc is involved in the pathophysiology and
therapy of depression.
 Zinc Deficiency

Changes digestive function; growth

retardation
Causes diarrhea; fever, nausea, vomiting
Impairs immune response; anemia
Disturbs thyroid function and body’s energy
metabolism
Causes loss of appetite and slow wound
healing
Occur among pregnant women, young
children, the elderly and the poor.
 Taste abnormalities Abnormal dark adaption

CLINICAL MANIFESTATUIONS IN MILD TO

MODERATE CASES OF ZINC DEFICIENCY

Oligospermia Delayed wound healing

Slight weight loss

 Emotional disorders
Depletion of immunity
(depression, paranoia)

CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
Alopecia IN SEVERE CASES Alcoholism
OF ZINC DEFICIENCY

Bullous-pustular Hypogonadism in males

dermatitis

Infections
 Zn deficiency
symptoms result
from
 Anxiety
disorder

Nutritional
factors Depressive
disorder

Zn Emotional
deficiency disorder Suicides

Behavior
disorder
Excessive
alcohol use

Personality
disorder
 Zinc Toxicity
Zinc is toxic in large quantities
Zinc supplements can cause serious
illness or death in high doses
Can block copper absorption and lead
to degeneration of heart muscle
Zinc can alter cholesterol metabolism
and may accelerate atherosclerosis
development
Inhibit iron absorption
UL is 40 mg/d
 Selenium

Selenium assists an enzyme in preventing

free radical formation
If free radicals do form, Vit E stops the
destructive chain reaction
Se and Vit E thus work in concert
Se also plays a role in activating thyroid
hormone
 Selenium
Deficiency causes a specific type of heart
disease
RDA is 55 g/d for adults
UL is 400 g/d for adults
Se is widely distributed in foods
Toxicity is possible when take supplements
– Hair loss
– Diarrhea
– Nerve abnormalities
Dietary Source of Selenium:

 organic meats & sea food 0.4-1.5 µg/g

 Muscle meats 0.1-0.4 µg/g
 Cereal & grain 0.1-0.8 µg/g
 Fruit &vegetable < 0.1 µg/g
 Dairy products < 0.1-0.3 µg/g
 Human milk 10-30 µg/l
 Cow,s milk 5-10 µg/l
 The antioxidant rôle of selenium
reduction of lipid peroxides by glutathione peroxidase
a selenium-dependent enzyme O
C NH CH2 COOH
HS CH2 CH COOH

NH C CH2 CH2 CH

O NH2

2 x reduced glutathione (GSH)

NADP+ lipid peroxide

glutathione reductase glutathione peroxidase

NADPH fatty acid

O O
HOOC CH2 HN C C NH CH2 COOH
HOOC HC CH2 S S CH2 CH COOH

HC CH2 CH2 C NH NH C CH2 CH2 CH

H2N O O NH2
oxidised glutathione (GSSG) 
 Glutathione peroxidase contains
selenocysteine at the active site
CH2 SeH
+H N HOOH 2H2O
3 CH
C O 2GSH GSSG

O-

ROOH H2O+ROH

2GSH GSSG

GSH+Rº GS º +RH

2GS º GSSG 2GSH

2NADPH NADP
 Chromium

Associated with insulin

Needed for energy release from glucose
Deficiency - Abnormal glucose metabolism
Toxicity - DNA changes?
– however no UL has been established
Sources - meat, unrefined grains, vegetable oils
No effect on body composition in well-nourished
people.
AI - 35 and 25 g/d for men and women
 Copper

Used to form hemoglobin and collagen

Part of several enzymes
Deficiency - Rare but could lead to anemia
Toxicity - vomiting, diarrhea
Sources - Meat, drinking water
Excess zinc interferes copper absorption
and may lead to deficiency.
RDA is 900 g/d for adults; UL is 10000
g/d for adults
 RDI Micro-minerals (WNPG, 2004)
Age group (y) Ferrum Iodine Zinc Mangan Selenium
(mg) (µg) (mg) (mg) (µg)

1–3 7 90 8.2 1.2 17

4–6 8 120 9.7 1.5 20
7-9 10 120 11.2 1.7 20
Male : 10 – 12 13 120 14.0 1.9 20
13 – 15 19 150 17.4 2.2 30
16 – 18 13 150 17.0 2.3 30
19 – 29 13 150 12.1 2.3 30
30 – 49 13 150 13.4 2.3 30
50 – 64 13 150 13.4 2.3 30
65+ 13 150 13.4 2.3 30
Female: 10 -- 12 14 120 12.6 1.6 20
13 – 15 26 150 15.4 1.6 30
16 – 18 26 150 14.0 1.6 30
19 – 29 26 150 9.3 1.8 30
30 – 49 26 150 9.8 1.8 30
50 – 64 12 150 9.8 1.8 30
65+ 12 150 9.8 1.8 30
Pregnant TM 1 +0 + 50 + 1.7 + 0.2 +5
TM 2 +9 + 50 + 4.2 + 0.2 +5
Tm 3 + 13 + 50 + 10.2 + 0.2 +5
Lactation +6 + 50 + 4.6 + 0.8 + 10
Tolerable Upper Intake Level

UL  maximum limit that safe to be consumed every day

UL for > 10 year old :

- Calcium = 2500 mg
- Phosphor = 4000 mg
- Magnesium = 350 mg
- Fluor = 10 mg
- Iron = 54 mg
- Iodine = 1100 g
- Zinc = 80 mg
- Manganese = 11 mg
- Selenium = 400 g
Intervention strategies to
improve mineral nutrition:

1. Supplementation
2. Fortification
3. Dietary diversification / modification
4. Health interventions (environmental sanitation,
personal hygiene, immunizations, etc)