COMPUTER

COMMUNICATIONS AND
NETWORKS

1-1 Lec#2
Computer Networks
1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a

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computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
Topics discussed in this section:
 Network Criteria
 Physical Structures
 Categories of Networks
Network Criteria

 Performance
 Depends on Network Elements

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 Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
 Reliability
 Failure rate of network components
 Measured in terms of availability/robustness
 Security
 Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
 Errors
 Malicious users
Physical Structures

 Type of Connection
 Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver

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 Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
 Physical Topology
 Connection of devices
 Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast
Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

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Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

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Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

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Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

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Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

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Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

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Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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NETWORKING
 Point to point communication not usually
practical
 Devices are too far apart
 Large set of devices would need impractical number
of connections
 Solution is a communications network
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Local Area Network (LAN)
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
There are three basic configurations used to
connect computers they are the
Bus

Ring

Star
BUS TOPOLOGY

 This type of network was widely used in the

1980’s
 In this configuration every computer (node)
shares the networks total bus capacities.
 In this configuration adding more computers will
reduce the access speed on the network.
 Each computer communicates to other
computers on the network independently this is
referred to as
PEER-TO-PEER networking
HOW A BUS PEER TO PEER
NETWORK WORKS
 All computers on a network have a distinct
address just like your house does
 a message would be send from one computer with
the address of another computer attached to the
message
 The message is broadcasted to all the computers
on the network until the addressed PC accepts
the message
HOW IT WORKED
 The type of wires used for Bus Networks
in the 80’s were called Thicknet and
Thinnet
 A Thicknet cable (very large about 1 inch
in diameter usually yellow was hung
around a room)
 Thinnet cables were connected to the PC’s
NIC and a Transceiver. The Transceiver
was tapped into the Thicknet cable
 To stop the message from bouncing back
and forward down the wire (known as
signal bounce) both ends of the network
are terminated with 50Ω resistors
PROBLEMS
 One of the main problems with this type of
network is that it is not very fault tolerant, a
break or defect in the bus would affect the whole
network
RING TOPOLOGY

 In Ring topology each node is connected to the

two nearest nodes so the entire network forms
a circle
 Data only travels in one direction on a Ring
network
HOW THIS TOPOLOGY WORKS
a node has information to send to another
computer on the network so it sends the
information out on the network to the PC
it is connected to, if the information is for
this PC (the recipients NIC address is
attached to the message, which is like
putting an address on an envelope) then
the PC accepts the data
 otherwise it passes the information on to
the next PC by repeating the data back
out on the line
 This method of repeating the data helps
keep the integrity of the data readable by
other computers
HOW IT WORKS
 As it is better to have computers take turns using
the connecting Data cable, Ring topologies
incorporated a system called Token passing
 In this topology, to transmit on the wire your
computer must have control of the token or wait
for the token to be free
 Larger Token Ring networks use multiple tokens

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
 The drawback to this type of topology is that a
single malfunctioning workstation can disable
the whole network
 To make sure all the information is sent the
receiving PC sends the token back to the sending
PC after it has received all the data
 If the sending PC is finished sending it passes
the token to the next PC
 This type of network was also widely used in the
1980’s
 This type of network used Thinnet cable joining
nodes.
 In the mid 1980’s Thinnet cable was replaced by
Category 3 Ethernet cable capable of handling up
to 10Mbps
 STAR TOPOLOGY

HUB

 In a Star topology every node is connected through a

central device such as a Hub, Switch or Router
 Compared to a Ring or Bus topology a Star topology
requires that more thought be put into its setup
THE GOOD AND BAD OF A
STAR NETWORK
 The upside of a star network is that if any one
cable fails then only the node connected on that
cable would be affected
 Another positive point to this type of network is
that it is very simple to join two star networks
together by connecting their central devices to
each other
THE GOOD AND BAD OF A
STAR NETWORK
 As each computer is connected to a central device
(Hub) the location of the Hub must be made as
central as possible, so as to reduce cable lengths
 The drawback to this type of topology is if a
central device was to fail then all computers
connected to that device would not be able to see
the network
WHAT IS A HUB?
 A hub is usually a small rectangular box, often
made of plastic, which receives its power from an
ordinary wall outlet
 A hub joins multiple computers (or other network
devices) together to form a single network
segment
 On this network segment, all computers can
communicate directly with each other
WHAT IS A HUB?
 Ethernet hubs are by far the most common type,
but hubs for other types of networks such as USB
also exist
 A hub includes a series of ports that each accepts
a network cable
 Small hubs can network four computers together

 They contain four or sometimes five ports

WHAT IS A HUB?
 Many times the fifth port is reserved for "uplink"
which is the connecting of one hub to another hub
or similar device (joining two segments together).
 Larger hubs contain eight, 12, 16, and even 24
ports
KEY FEATURES OF HUBS

 Hubs classify as Layer 1 devices in the

OSI model
 OSI stands for :

The Open Systems Interconnection Basic

Reference Model
 At the physical layer, hubs can support
little in the way of sophisticated
networking
 Hubs do not read any of the data passing
through them and are not aware of their
source or destination
KEY FEATURES OF HUBS

 Essentially, a hub simply receives incoming

packets, possibly amplifies the electrical signal,
and broadcasts these packets out to all devices on
the network - including the one that originally
sent the packet!
 a packet is a formatted block of data carried by a
computer network
DIFFERENT TYPES OF HUBS
 Technically speaking, three different types of
hubs exist
Passive
Active
Intelligent
 Passive hubs
 Passive hubs do not amplify the electrical signal of
incoming packets before broadcasting them out to the
network

Active hubs

 amplify the electrical signal of incoming packets back to

their original level before broadcasting them back out on
the network
 Intelligent hubs

 add extra features to an active hub that are of

particular importance to businesses
 An intelligent hub is typically stackable (built in
such a way that multiple units can be placed one
on top of the other to conserve space).
INTELLIGENT HUBS
 It also typically includes remote management
capabilities via SNMP and virtual LAN (VLAN)
support (You can configure or check it from a
computer that is connected to it).
 SNMP-Simple Network Management
Protocol
WHAT IS A NETWORK SWITCH?
 A network switch is a small hardware device
that joins multiple computers together within one
local area network (LAN)
 Technically, network switches operate at layer
two (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model
NETWORK SWITCH
 Network switches appear nearly identical to
network hubs, but a switch generally contains
more "intelligence" (and a slightly higher price
tag) than a hub
 Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of
inspecting data packets as they are received,
determining the source and destination device of
that packet, and forwarding it appropriately
NETWORK SWITCH
 By delivering each message only to the connected
device it was intended for, a network switch
conserves network bandwidth and offers
generally better performance than a hub
WHAT IS A ROUTER?
 Routers are physical devices that join multiple
wired or wireless networks together
 Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer
3 gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless
router connects networks together
 A Gateway is a device that acts like a security
guard and only allows data in or out if it has the
right network headers
ROUTERS
 Home “networkers” often use an Internet
Protocol (IP) wired or wireless router
 IP is the most common OSI network layer
protocol
 Protocols are the rules governing the
transfer of data information, it can also be
compared to how humans use languages
(to get your point across you must talk in
the same language as the person you are
speaking to).
ROUTERS
 An IP router such as a DSL or cable modem are
broadband routers and joins the home's local area
network (LAN) to the wide-area network (WAN)
of the Internet
 A Broadband Router is a device that allows
multiple PC’s to access the Internet using only
one address.
FULL-MESH TOPOLOGY
 This topology features the ultimate reliability and
fault tolerance
 Every networked node is directly connected to every
other networked node

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 Redundant routes to each location are plentiful,
hence static routing impractical.
 Use dynamic routing protocols
 STATIC ROUTING

R3(config)#ip route 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.2 R3(config)#ip route 192.168.20.0

255.255.255.0 172.16.10.6

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FULL-MESH TOPOLOGY

User Location A

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T1
T1

T1
T1

T1 T1 User Location C
User Location B

User Location D
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF FULL-
MESH

 Advantages:
 Minimizes the number of hops between any two
network-connected machines

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 Can be built with virtually any transmission
technology
 Disadvantages:
 These WANs can be fairly expensive to build
 A finite (although substantial) limit on the scalability
of the network
PARTIAL-MESH

User Location A

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T1
T1

T1
T1

User Location C
User Location B

User Location D
ADVANTAGES OF PARTIAL-MESH
 Partial meshes offer the capability to minimize
hops for the bulk of the WAN’s users

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 Unlike fully meshed networks, a partial mesh
can reduce the startup and operational expenses
by not interconnecting low-traffic segments of the
WAN, hence more affordable and scalable
TWO-TIERED TOPOLOGY
 A two-tiered topology is a modified version of the
basic star topology. Rather than single
concentrator routers, two or more routers are

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used
 A two-tiered WAN constructed with dedicated
facilities offers improved fault tolerance over the
simple star topology without compromising
scalability
TWO-TIERED TOPOLOGY

User Location B
User Location A

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T1 T1 T1 T1 T1

User Location C User Location D User Location F

User Location E
THREE-TIERED TOPOLOGY
 WANs that need to interconnect a very large
number of sites, or are built using smaller
routers that can support only a few serial

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connections, may find the two-tiered architecture
insufficiently scalable.
 Therefore, adding a third tier may well provide
the additional scalability they require
THREE-TIERED

User Location A

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Backbone tier

T1
T1 T1

User Location D
User Location B

T1 T1 T1
56Kb 56Kb

Concentrator tier User Location C

User Tier

User Location E User Location F User Location G User Location H

ADVANTAGE/DISADVANTAGE OF THREE-
TIERED

 Advantage:
 A three-tiered WAN constructed with dedicated
facilities offers even greater fault tolerance and

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scalability than the two-tiered topology
 Disadvantage:
 Three-tiered networks are expensive to build, operate
and maintain
 HYBRID TOPOLOGIES
 Hybridization of multiple topologies is useful in
larger, more complex networks
 Multitiered networks, in particular, lend themselves
to hybridization. A multitiered WAN can be

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hybridized by fully or partially meshing the
backbone tier of routers
 An effective hybrid topology may be developed in a
multitiered WAN by using a fully meshed topology
for the backbone nodes only
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
T3

T3 T3

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Backbone tier

T1
T1 T1

User Location D
User Location B

T1 T1 T1
56Kb 56Kb

Concentrator tier User Location C

User Tier

User Location E User Location F User Location G User Location H

Categories of Networks

 Local Area Networks (LANs)

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 Short distances
 Designed to provide local interconnectivity
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
 Long distances
 Provide connectivity over large areas
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
 Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
WIDE AREA NETWORKS
 Large geographical area
 Crossing public rights of way

 Rely in part on common carrier circuits

 Alternative technologies
 Circuit switching
 Packet switching
 Frame relay
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
 Dedicated communications path established for
the duration of the conversation
 e.g. telephone network

 Provide dedicate way during the conversion of

data from sender to reciever
PACKET SWITCHING
 Data sent out of sequence
 Small chunks (packets) of data at a time

 Packets passed from node to node between source

and destination
 Used for terminal to computer and computer to
computer communications
FRAME RELAY
 Packet switching systems have large overheads
to compensate for errors
 Modern systems are more reliable

 Errors can be caught in end system

 Most overhead for error control is stripped out

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE
 ATM
 Evolution of frame relay

 Little overhead for error control

 Fixed packet (called cell) length

 Anything from 10Mbps to Gbps

 Constant data rate using packet switching

technique
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS
 Smaller scope
 Building or small campus
 Usually owned by same organization as attached
devices
 Data rates much higher

 Usually broadcast systems

 Now some switched systems and ATM are being

introduced
LAN CONFIGURATIONS
 Switched
 Switched Ethernet
 May be single or multiple switches
 ATM LAN
 Fibre Channel

 Wireless
 Mobility
 Ease of installation
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS
 MAN
 Middle ground between LAN and WAN

 Private or public network

 High speed

 Large area
NETWORKING
CONFIGURATION
Examples: Categories of Networks

 Local Area Networks (LANs)

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 Wide Area Networks (WANs)

 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

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Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

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Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

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 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives. It has affected the way we do business as well as the

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way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.

Topics discussed in this section:

Organization of the Internet
Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
Figure 1.13 Hierarchical organization of the Internet

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1-4 PROTOCOLS

A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of

rules that govern data communications. It determines what

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is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics and timing

Topics discussed in this section:

 Syntax
 Semantics
 Timing
Elements of a Protocol

 Syntax

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 Structure or format of the data
 Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
 Semantics
 Interprets the meaning of the bits
 Knows which fields define what action
 Timing
 When data should be sent and what
 Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being
received.