THE NETWORK

PROTOCOL AND TCP/IP

MODEL
 OBJECTIVES

 1. address protocols on the network, namely: TCP, UDP and IP;

 2. construe how IP address works;
 3. comprehend what both IPv4 and IPv6 do;
 4. explicate network protocols in the TCP / IP suite;
 5. explain how VOIP works;
 6. cite comparisons between the TCP / IP suite with the OSI
Reference Model;
 7. discuss WAN standards used for remote communication; and
 TYPES OF NETWORK SIGNALS

 Analog Signal- is classified as a

continuous signal with varying wave
length patterns. It is measured by a
positive and negative voltage levels.
Examples: Natural Human Voice, Light
waves, radio and telephone signals.
 Digital signal - also uses a uses voltage
levels but the difference is that digital
can only generate binary of ones and
 TWO TYPES OF SIGNAL INTERFERENCE

 An Electromagnetic interference (EMI) – occurs when

magnetic force fields have been accidentally yielded by
electrical devices such as fans, elevator motors, portable
heaters, and air-conditioning units.

 Radio frequency interference (RFI) – occurs there is a

disturbance with electrical devices that emits radio waves such
as radio, television, substandard built computers or even TV
equipment.
TWO TYPES OF CHARACTER FORMAT

 EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)”

is an “8-bit coding method for 256-character set” that is mainly
used by IBM computers and other older computers.

 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)”

is an “8-bit character coding method” that supports “128
characters” mainly used by computers with operating systems
running UNIX/Linux, Windows 7 or Mac OS X
 SAMPLE SCENARIO OF HOW THE OSI
MODEL IS IMPOSED
 Setting: local server located at the MIS office was being accessed by a workstation from
CICT department

 1. “Redirector at Application layer locates shared drive”

 2. “Presentation layer ensures data format is ASCII code”
 3. “Session layer establishes and maintains link”
 4. “Transport layer monitors transmission/reception errors”
 5. “Network layer routes packet along shortest path”
 6. “Data Link layer formats frames, verifies address”
 7. “Physical layer converts data to electrical signal
 WHAT IS NETWORK PROTOCOL?

 Protocols provides an efficient way to

exchange data among connected nodes. A
computer must have protocols or set of
guidelines to follow just as how we humans use
a language to communicate with one another.
 Example: LAN can have multiple protocols. It
can have a separate protocol for each of its
network devices and computers
 LAN Protocol - enables a secure way of linking
networks, and can transfer data at a relatively
high speed. A LAN also has the ability to handle
“source and destination node addressing”. LAN
protocols must conform to the safety and quality
standards set by various governing network
organizations especially the IEEE 802 standards.
The IEEE 802 standard is specifically in charge
with signal quality transmission checks.
 LAN SUPPORTS DIFFERENT TYPES OF
PROTOCOLS
 IPX/SPX, AppleTalk, NetBEUI, and TCP/IP. All of the latter
except TCP/IP are no longer widely used. TCP/IP is type of
protocol that became the commonly used protocol as it’s highly
compatible with most of the internet networking standards.
 • Legacy Protocols – legacy means that software or a specific
device can no longer be updated or the vendor no longer
upgrades that specific product. The following examples are the
different legacy protocols before the TCP/IP become universally
used language or protocol of the internet.
 1. INTERNETWORK PACKET EXCHANGE
(ALSO KNOWN AS IPX)
 is type of legacy network protocol developed by the firm Novell for its
NetWare operating system. IPX was often used with Ethernet bus and
token ring networks. It is based from a Xerox Network System XNS
Protocol
 Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) works hand in hand with IPX
protocol; it supports the use of applications like databases.
 IPX/SPX was used for NetWare servers up until version 4. After that,
NetWare has replaced the IPX/SPX protocol with Novell Open
Enterprise Server.
 2. NetBEUI ( NetBIOS Extended User Interface) is a type of network protocol
developed by Microsoft to be compatible to a “LAN Manager” and “LAN Server”.
This protocol is commonly used in the earlier versions of Windows operating
systems up to Windows 2000 and Windows ME.
 3. AppleTalk – developed by Apple – is a type of protocol that supports peer to peer
networking between MAC computer devices. It can communicate with other
MACINTOSH computers even with a server.
 4. TCP/IP – is currently the universally used protocol suite and is dubbed as the
protocol of the internet. This protocol is supported by most network servers and
different types of operating systems making communication with different networks
and nodes possible. TCP/IP protocols is originally developed and used on UNIX
systems.
 THE BEGINNING OF TCP/IP PROTOCOL

 The history of TCP/IP can be rooted from the spark of World War II with people’s
deep yearning to find other ways to communicate with others at real-time.
 Advanced Research Projects Agency (also known as ARPA) is a type of
organization that have envisioned a networking goal that will enable universities,
research departments and even the military defense to communicate with each
other synchronously. Because of that the ARPANET was developed. ARPANET
aspires to universally able all nodes to connect as its still is not possible during
those times as manufacturers or vendors were very proprietary and exclusive.
 Network Control Protocol (also known as NCP) – followed after ARPANET, this
protocol enabled devices from IBM, DEC and other vendors to exchange
interaction, but still ended with a lot of flaws.
 After some setbacks with NCP, the TCP/IP
combination was developed. It is composed
of two protocols working alongside each
other. The TCP stands for “Transmission
Control Protocol” while IP means “Internet
Protocol”.
 FEW IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT TCP/IP ARE THE
FOLLOWING:

 • This is recognized worldwide by many networks as the only protocol

that is completely compatible with the Internet standards
 • It influenced other manufacturer to adopt its protocol
 • This is the protocol that most operating systems supports
 • It contains different troubleshooting tools and networking system soft
wares
 • Because of efficiency of the “TCP/IP protocol” this became well known
by experts in the field of IT
WHAT IS TCP/IP

 TCP/IP is a “layered protocol” that is similar to, but not

entirely identical to the “OSI reference model”. There
are nearly a hundred of protocols supported by TCP/IP
but its core components are only 3, namely:
 • Internet Protocol (IP);
 • Transmission Control Protocol (TCP); and
 • User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
TCP OR TRANSMISSION CONTROL
PROTOCOL

 was a “hailed as a transport protocol”

(equivalent to the Transport layer in OSI
reference model). Its duties include
establishing of sessions between network
nodes and sequencing and
acknowledgement of data frames. It also
keeps tabs on end to end delivery of data.
 MAIN TCP FUNCTIONS (ALSO SIMILAR WITH OSI TRANSPORT
LAYER)

 – Checks on session requests and

sets a session with other nodes
that compatible with TCP protocol.
It can also “send and receive data”.
It has the authority to close
transmission sessions when the
needs arise
 USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)
 is also known as a “connection-less protocol”. The data does not
undergo the same process as the TCP for it can’t be controlled,
sequenced or even acknowledge. It operates with Layer 4 like the
TCP protocol. If the TCP is not available UDP can be a substitute.
 • A UDP has a frame with four-field header and a data. It heavily
relies on the process of checksum to ensure reliability.
 • In UDP protocol setting, when a computer sends their data over
a UDP it does not really care if a data is received at the other end
and that’s why UDP is known as a “fire and forget protocol”.
Because of UDP is does not regulate data flows it’s much faster
than a TCP.
 Advantages: “it adds a little overhead onto IP and can be used for
transaction processing applications. It can also carries important
network status prompts” – Michael Palmer, 2013
QUIZ
IP ADDRESS

 An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the

internet or a local network. IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which
is the set of rules governing the format of data
 An IP address is a string of numbers separated by periods. IP
addresses are expressed as a set of four numbers — an example
address might be 192.158.1.38. Each number in the set can range
from 0 to 255. So, the full IP addressing range goes from 0.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255. sent via the internet or local network.
 THE FEATURES OF AN IP ADDRESS

 • A “LAN” may be system of Subnet works. A “WAN” usually consists of

“autonomous networks” (means they can run even with minimal human
intervention) like: MPLS, frame relay, SONET, DSL. Internet Protocol also
allows packet transmissions to different network types, if proved to be
complacent with TCP/IP.
 • Internet Protocol supports the following network transports: ATM,
ISDN, FDDI, DSL, frame relay, , Ethernet, MPLS, and SONET
 • IP’s main functions are: “data transmission, packet addressing, packet
routing, fragmentation, detection of errors”
SONET- is a standard for synchronous data transmission on optical fibers. In other words, SONET is a
standardized digital communication protocol. SONET can be utilized to transmit
and multiplex multiple data streams across a fiber optic cable.
DSL -is a modem technology that uses existing telephone lines to transport high-bandwidth data,
such as multimedia and video, to service subscribers.
ISDN- It's a set of communication standards that uses digital transmission to make phone calls, video calls,
transmit data and other network services over the circuits of the traditional PSTN (Public Switched
Telephone Network).
MPLS- is a networking technology that routes traffic using the shortest path based on “labels,” rather than
network addresses, to handle forwarding over private wide area networks. As a scalable and protocol-
independent solution, MPLS assigns labels to each data packet, controlling the path the packet follows.
MPLS greatly improves the speed of traffic, so users don’t experience downtime when connected to the
network.
FDDI- is a network standard that uses fiber optic connections in a local area network (LAN) that can
extend in range up to 200 kilometers (124 miles). 
TWO VERSIONS OF INTERNET PROTOCOL

- IPv4: has a 32-bit node address

- IPv6: has a 128-bit node address
BASIC IPV4 ADDRESSING RULES

 • An IPv4 supports four fields equivalent to 32 bits. It

also uses a dotted decimal notation for its IP address
format. It was developed in the 1970s.
 • AN IPv4 has two parts the network ID and the Host ID
example: 129.6.17.0
 • IPv4 addresses are classified according to their
network transfer type and size, classified as Class A up
to Class E.
THE TYPES OF DATA TRANSMISSION PROCESS
ARE THE FOLLOWING:

 1. Unicast: “packet sent to each requesting client”

 2. Multicast: “packet sent to group of requesting
clients”
 3. Broadcast: “communication sent to all network
nodes” (M.Palmer, 2013)
IP ADDRESS CLASSES

 1. “Class A addresses”: the IP address under this

class type can only have a beginning value of 1
and maximum of 126 for its first octet. Example:
1.0.0.0 ; 126.201.0.0.
 1.255.255.255
 Location of Network ID: first octet
 Location of Host ID: last three octets
IP ADDRESS CLASSES

 2. “Class B addresses”: the IP address under this class type

can only have a beginning value of 128 and maximum of 191
for its first octet.
128.1.1.1
128.2.255.255

 Location of Network ID: first two octet

 Location of Host ID: the last two octets
IP ADDRESS CLASSES

 3. ”Class C addresses”: the IP address under this class

type can only have a beginning value of 192 and
maximum of 233 for its first octet.

 Location of Network ID: first three octets

 Location of Host ID: the last octet
IP ADDRESS CLASSES

 4. “Class D addresses” are exclusively used for

multicasting, and the IP address
 under this class type can only have a beginning value
of 224 and maximum of 239 for its first octet.
 5. “Class E addresses” are solely used for
experimentation, and the IP address under this class
type can only have a beginning value of 240 and
maximum of 254 for its first octet.
“SPECIAL PURPOSE IP ADDRESSES” IS NOT FOR
USE FOR REGULAR IP ADDRESSING:

 • “255.255.255.255” – is not a valid address and even if

you type it in any browser it will not yield any results,
that’s because this IP address is a type of broadcast
address use for sending messages to all workstations
connected to a specific network.
 • “127” is a “loopback address” and is not used for
common sub netting process. There are around 375
possible loopback address combinations, but 127 is the
universally acknowledged loopback address. Its main
REFERENCES

 https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/definitions/what-is-an-ip-address ;
retrieved Aug. 27, 2022 4:27pm
 https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/Synchronous-Optical-
Network ; retrieved Aug. 27, 2022 4:35pm
 https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/cyberpedia/mpls-what-is-multiprotocol-label-
switching ; retrieved Aug. 27, 2022 4:39pm
 https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/FDDI ; retrieved Aug.
27, 2022 4:39pm