Geophysics

The four main aspects of Geophysics

 Seismic Studies
 Magnetic Surveying
 Gravitational Surveying
 Electrical Resistivity
Seismic Studies
Seismic waves are artificially produced by small explosions or
generated by earthquake/volcanic activity. These P, S and L waves
all have properties that can be used to determine both the basic
structures of surface features and the internal structure of the
Earth.
P and S wave Properties: S waves cannot travel through a
liquid body as a liquid has no
rigidity, it is the fact that there is
still a bulk modulus in a liquid that
allows a P wave to travel through it,
this is clearer to see by observing
the formulas to the left. S waves
K = Bulk Modulus N = Rigidity Modulus will therefore be undetected if pass
D = Density a liquid body, for this reason liquid
bodies can be detected.
Seismic Studies
Refraction. Refraction occurs by an acceleration or a deceleration
of a wave as it enters a medium with different properties. The
main property of a medium that causes a change in velocity is the
density. If there is an increase in density the waves velocity will
increase and as a result will move towards the normal. Another
important factor that affects the velocity of a wave when entering a
medium is the physical state of the medium and the type of wave
entering the medium. If a transverse wave such as an S wave
enters a liquid it will not transfer energy and the velocity rapidly
decreases to zero, therefore the wave will not be received.
Refraction occurs continually within the earth as the more dense
material is found near to the centre due a centripetal force
generated by the earths rotation and as a result of this waves
continually refract when penetrate the earth.
Seismic Studies
The diagram to the left shows
how the properties of seismic p
+ s waves are used to
determine the physical state of
the structure within the earth.
The outer core must be a liquid
as only p waves can travel
through, the mantle must be a
solid as s waves can travel
through it. The boundary
between the outer core and the
mantle is known as the
Glutenberg Discontinuity.
Seismic Studies
Proving a solid inner core is not as
simple. There are two main methods of
doing this, the first is by observing an
acceleration of the p waves that travel
straight through the inner core due to
an increase in rigidity as a result of
changing state from liquid to solid. This
is indicated by the blue line on the
diagram. Another way in which a solid
inner core is determined is the set of P
waves that are recorded due to great
refraction at the inner core boundary.
This is also caused by rapid acceleration
of the wave due to an increase in
rigidity but also density. This is shown by the red line on the diagram.
Seismic Studies
Andrija Mohorovičić was born on 23 January
1857. Mohorovičić was experimenting with
seismic waves with a predicted recording shown
below. He actually recorded results similar to the
observed set in the diagram. The only way
Mohorovičić could
explain this extra set
of waves was to
predict a
discontinuity where
the properties of the rock body change
resulting in a refraction of the waves
and arrive at the receiver with a slight
delay. Although the distance travelled
is further the increase in velocity
allows the second set of wave to catch up with the direct set.
Seismic Studies
Seismic waves can be used on a smaller more important scale to
observe rising magma in an active volcano.
Seismic Studies
Another use of studying seismic waves is to examine the depth of
the rockhead in a given area. This is measured similarly to
measuring the depth of the Moho but on a much smaller scale. A
small artificial explosion is generated and the refraction of the P
and S seismic waves caused by an acceleration as a result of
increased density. Two sets of P and S waves are produced. The
time gap between each set of the same wave can be used to
calculate the distance between regolith (Drift i.e. alluvial deposits,
boulder clay etc.) and rockhead.
The four main aspects of Geophysics
 Seismic Studies
 Magnetic Surveying
 Gravitational Surveying
 Electrical Resistivity
Magnetic Surveying
A magnetic mineral is a mineral that contains iron that can pick up
a magnetic field and retain remanent magnetism. Magnetic
surveying is more limited then gravitational surveying as a result
of this, as not all rocks contain magnetic minerals, whereas all
rocks have a density therefore gravitational surveying is always
possible. Also a rocks density will be consistent throughout the
rock formation whereas a rocks magnetic properties may be more
varied due to the distribution of magnetic minerals within the rock
body, as a result will be less diagnostic of the formation.

Rocks magnetise as a result of induced magnetisation due to the

presence of the Earth’s magnetic field. The constant of
proportionality between inducing field and magnetization is called
susceptibility (k) the formula µ0J=kB shows this relationship
where J is induced magnetization B the field strength and µ0 a
constant.
Magnetic Surveying
The Geoinstruments TH-3C Probe. When the probe passes
through magnetically susceptible material, the coil inductance
changes causing the bridge to become unbalanced. The bridge is
balanced automatically by changing the energizing frequency. This
change in frequency is proportional to magnetic susceptibility.
Since the measurements are made inductively the tool can be
used inside plastic casing and in dry holes. Susceptibilities in the
range of 0 to 2.0 SI can be measured with this tool. The volume of
investigation or `sample volume' is roughly a sphere of 30 cm
radius, surrounding the sensing coil in the probe. Logging is
normally carried out at 6 m/minute and a measurement is taken
every second or each 10 cm along the hole.
Magnetic Surveying
High Resolution Aeromagnetic Surveys (HRAS ). Systematic
magnetic susceptibility data based on more than 10,000
measurements on more than 11km of core from 70 offshore and
onshore boreholes in the BGS and DTI collections. Measurements
on sedimentary rocks from sequences of Carboniferous to
Quaternary age, igneous rocks of Permo-Carboniferous and
younger ages and volcanogenic sediments associated with
Palaeogene igneous activity.
Magnetic Surveying
Aeromagnetic Survey. The typical flight path of an
aeromagnetic survey is shown by the diagram to the
right. The distance between each vertical line will be
approximately 100m and the horizontal up to 2km.
The photograph is of a flight of an aeromagnetic survey. This is a
proton magnetometer.
Magnetic Surveying
Proton Magnetometer. The proton magnetometer is an absolute
instrument giving a direct reading of field strength. In a sample of a
suitable liquid, the proton spins line up parallel or antiparallel to the
earths magnetic field, the liquid therefore having a small magnetic
moment in this direction. A strong field is then applied perpendicular
to the earths field causing the protons to realign giving a strong
moment in this direction. When this field is cut off the magnetic
moment will relax to the earths field in a few seconds by processing
around it. The frequency of procession (ƒ) of the proton is about
2kHz and is related to this formula: ƒ =YpB/2πμ0 where Yp is a
known constant, the gyromagnetic ratio.
The Magnetic
Properties of Some
Common Rock Types:
Magnetic Surveying
Using Changes in Magnetic Field Intensity. Using the principle
that magnetic field intensity decreases with increasing temperature,
rising magma chambers can be detected. This is done by using a
magnetometer that is placed in the ground and detects the
magnetic field strength in magnetites (Fe3O4) near to active
volcanoes. If there is a fall in the magnetic field intensity it is likely
that fresh magma is rising.
The four main aspects of Geophysics
 Seismic Studies
 Magnetic Surveying
 Gravitational Surveying
 Electrical Resistivity
Gravitational Surveying
This is basically measuring the acceleration of a body as a result
of the gravitational forces acting on it. It is dependant on the
density of the underlying rocks. Four main examples of gravity
surveying are:
Micro-gravity: location of subsurface cavities, location of tombs
(low density of air relative to soil/rock)
Small scale: mapping bedrock topography (high density bedrock
relative to soil), mineral exploration (high density massive ore
body relative to host rock)
Medium scale: location of salt domes in oil exploration (low
density salt relative to sediments)
Large scale: estimation of crustal thickness (low density crust
over higher density mantle)
Gravitational Surveying
Basic Principles. Gravity surveying is based on Newton's Universal
Law of Gravitation-The force of attraction between two bodies of
known mass is directly proportional to the product of the two
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. This is shown by the formula:
Where M and m are the two masses, r the distance between them
and G =6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2 the gravitational constant.
There are several methods of detecting changes in gravity.
Measuring Gravitational Changes.
Spring Based Gravimeters. W=mg (Weight = Mass x
Gravity). If a constant mass is used and there is a
change in gravity, the weight will change. As Weight =
Force (W=F) the Newton balance will change accordingly,
i.e. if there is an increase in gravity the Newton balance
spring will extend more. The force can then be calculated
using Hooke’s Law: F =kx where k is the spring constant
and will be known and x is the extension of the spring.
Gravitational Surveying
Stable Gravimeters. The mass is balanced
by the spring until there is a change in gravity
causing the weight to increase or decrease
and re adjusts the spring. The same principles
as previous are used.
Scinntrex CG-3 Gravimeter -This uses the
same principles as before but changes are not
of extension directly but of changes in
capacitance as the mass moves up and down
between the two plates as a result of
gravitational changes. Large Scale surveys
covering hundreds of square kilometres like the Gravitational
survey map to the left are carried out by vehicle or helicopter and
a station located once per square kilometre, this allows a
reasonably uniform cover of the area.
Gravitational Surveying
Average Densities of Common Rocks and Sediments looked
at in AS Geology
Gravitational Surveying
Gravity surveying can be used for many aspects of geology, for
example:
Detecting magma chambers near to the surface
Helps indicate rock composition of bedrock etc.
Detecting underground cavities
The four main aspects of Geophysics
 Seismic Studies
 Magnetic Surveying
 Gravitational Surveying
 Electrical Resistivity
Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity (ρ) is a physical constant for a given material, it
is affected by changes in resistance (R) and can be calculated by
substituting values into the formula: ρ=RA/l where cross sectional
area is A and length l. Resistivity changes can therefore be
calculated for shallow sections of the crust (few metres). An
instrument is used with a known voltage (V) and current (I), cross
sectional area and length is used and the resistivity can be
calculated. The resistance is calculated by using the formula R =V/I
and then the resistivity calculated. Changes in resistivity is usually
displayed as a plan view diagram and maybe a cross sectional
diagram and usually indicate significant areas of resistivity change.
Electrical Resistivity
Another way electrical resistivity is used is to detect rising magma
chambers at active volcanoes. This occurs as resistance increases
with temperature due to increased amplitude and frequency of
oscillation of lattice ions. This increase in resistance cause a rise in
electrical resistivity and rate of rising magma can be ascertained.