DIP

 angle of inclination of rock bed with the

horizontal plane
 Perpendicular to strike
 Types of dip:
1) true dip – maximum angle of dip on a rock
bed
2) apparent dip – a dip measured in any other
direction than the true dip
STRIKE
 The direction of line formed by the
intersection of a bedding plane and the
horizontal plane
 Direction in which a rock extends
JOINTS
 Cracks or fractures that divide the rocks into
parts or blocks and there is no relative
displacement
 It occurs in al types of rocks
 They are like cleavage in minerals
FOLDS
FOLDS
 DEF: Created in rock when they experience
compressional stress
 HINGE LINE/ FOLD AXIS
-imaginary line that connects points,
maximum curvature of a fold
 HINGE ZONE
-imaginary plane
 HINGE POINT
FOLDS
 LIMB
- lies between two
adjacent hinge lines
 AXIAL PLANE
- surface/ plane that
divides the fold as
symmetrical as possible
FOLDS
 ANTICLINE
- fold that is convex
upward (letter A)
 SYNCLINE
- fold that is concave
upward (bottom of an
‘S’)
 These terms are used
to describe folds
based on the relative
age of folded rock
layers
MOUNTAIN BUILDING
 Mountain formation
 mountain building involves three stages:
(1) accumulation of sediments
(2) orogenic period of rock deformation
and crustal uplift
(3) isostatic rebound and block-faulting
ACCUMULATION OF SEDIMENTS
 accumulations were originally deposited in a
marine environment.
 beds of the sedimentary rocks are
composed of particles that came from
nearby terrestrial landmasses.
 particles were released from rocks
by weathering and then transported
by erosional forces to the edge of the
terrestrial continental crust.
ACCUMULATION OF SEDIMENTS
 these sediments are lithified to
form shales, limestones,
and sandstones that make up
the continental shelves, slopes, and rise.
 Accumulations of volcanic rock develop
along convergent boundaries where
subduction is causing magma plumes to
form plutons and volcanoes.
OROGENIC PERIOD OF ROCK
DEFORMATION & CRUSTAL UPLIFT
 accumulated sediments become deformed by
compressional forces from the collision
of tectonic plates. This tectonic convergence
can be of three types:
1) ocean-continent - collision of ocean and
continental plates causes the accretion of
marine sedimentary deposits to the edge of
the continent.
OROGENIC PERIOD OF ROCK
DEFORMATION & CRUSTAL UPLIFT
2) Arc-continent -occurs when an island
arc collides with the edge of a continental plate.
The ocean plate area between the arc and the
continent is subducted into
the asthenosphere and the volcanic rocks and
sediments associated with the island arc
become accreted to the margin of the continent
over time.
3) Continent-continent occurs when an ocean
basin closes and two continental plates collide.
Responsible for the formation of the Himalayas,
Ural, and Appalachian mountain systems.
OROGENIC PERIOD OF ROCK
DEFORMATION & CRUSTAL UPLIFT
 In all three types of tectonic convergence,
layered rocks that were once located in the
ocean basin are squeezed into a smaller and
smaller area.
 compression causes the once flat
sedimentary beds to be folded and uplifted.
When the compressional forces become
greater than the rocks ability to deform,
faulting occurs. Compressional forces
typically result in reverse and overthrust
faulting.
ISOSTATIC REBOUND AND
BLOCK-FAULTING
 After the orogenic stage, weathering and
erosion begin removing material from the
surface of the newly created mountains.
 The removal of rock mass makes the area of
the continental crust where the mountains are
less heavy and that end of the crust begins to
float higher in the mantle.
 This isostatic rebound causes vertical uplift
and the tensional forces due to the
movement of the crust creates normal
and graben faults.
HORST AND GRABEN
 elongate fault blocks of the Earth’s crust that
have been raised and lowered, respectively,
relative to their surrounding areas as a direct
effect of faulting
CRUSTAL ROOT
 replaces surrounding heavier mantle and, as
a result, the land rises in order to maintain
isostatic equilibrium. It is this isostatic rise
that, in part, creates the mountain in the first
place, even during tectonic collision.
METAMORPHISM
DEFINITION
 Metamorphic rocks have had their
appearance (texture and mineral composition)
changed because of intense heat and/or
pressure.
 The deeper you go, the greater the pressure
on the tunnels because of the weight of rock
above.
 Metamorphic rocks are mostly formed
beneath mountain ranges where rocks are
deeply buried (10 km or more) and squashed
by movements of the Earth’s crust.
CHARACTERISTICS
 Coarser rocks will be formed
 Has HIGH DENSITY and LOW
POROSITY
 Low grade metamorphism
-the original rocks may only compact, as
in the formation of slate from shale.
 High grade metamorphism
-changes the rock so completely that the
source rock often cannot be readily
identified.
Current Research
 Chemical compositions of single crystals
within metamorphic rocks that form at high
pressure but now exist on the Earth’s
surface without changes in minerals as the
pressure decreases as it uplifts to Earth’s
surface.
 Studies of the ratios of unstable isotopes (for
example, uranium , rubidium, strontium, and
argon) allow scientists to determine the times
at which rocks metamorphosed.
Current Research
 New technology, particularly lasers
and x-ray tomography, allow scientists
to examine rocks and single crystals
in sufficient detail to understand how
crystals grow during metamorphism
and at what temperatures and
pressures they grow.
PROTOLITHS
 originalrock that has undergone
metamorphism (pre-existing rocks)
 any type of rock and sometimes the
changes in texture and mineralogy are so
dramatic that is difficult to distinguish what
the protolith was.
PROCESS OF METAMORPHISM
 Recrystallization
-identity of mineral does not change, only
the texture, size and shape
-occurs due to heating
 Phase Change
-transforms one mineral into another
mineral with the same composition but a
different structure
-on an atomic scale, it involves
rearrangement of atoms
PROCESS OF METAMORPHISM
 Neocrystallization
-”new crystals”
-chemical reactions digest minerals of the
protolith to produce new minerals of the
metamorphic rock
 Pressure Solution
- dissolves grains on the sides undergoing
more pressure, and precipitates new
mineral material when the pressure is lower
PROCESS OF METAMORPHISM
 Plastic Deformation
-change the shape of grains– without
breaking them– as a result of squeezing
or shear at high temperatures
CAUSES OF METAMORPHISM
1. Temperature (Heat)
 Hot temperature causes metamorphism
2. Pressure (2 types)
 Confining Pressure
- a rock gets buried deep in the Earth
-pressure from all angles
CAUSES OF METAMORPHISM
 Differential Stress
- pressure from one certain direction
3. Chemically Active Fluids
 Basically hot water
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
1. Contact
Metamorphism
-occurs when
magma comes in
contact with already
existing body of rock
-rock produced
is often fine grained
and non- foliated rock
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
 Metamorphic Aureole
-area of rock altered in composition,
structure or texture by contact w/ an
igneous intrusion
 Diagenesis
- process by w/c sediments turns to rock
 Burial Metamorphism
- occurs to rocks buried beneath sediments
to depths that exceed the conditions in w/c
sedimentary rocks form
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
 Dynamic/ Cataclastic Metamorphism
-metamorphism of rock masses caused
primarily by stresses that yield relatively
high strain water,
-occurs due to mountain building
 Mylonite
- a fine grained, compact metamorphic
rock produced by dynamic recrystallization
of the constituent minerals
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
2. Regional Metamorphism
-occurs when rocks are buried deep in the
crust
-commonly associated w/ convergent plate
boundaries and the formation of mountain
ranges
-also takes place within volcanic-arc
mountain ranges
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TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
 Types of Regional Metamorphism
a) Burial Metamorphism
- mostly affects sedimentary strata in
sedimentary basins
b) Ocean-ridge Metamorphism
- takes place at mid-oceanic ridges in
response to sea floor spreading
c) Orogenic Metamorphism
- commonly occurs in island arcs and
near continental margins
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
3. Hydrothermal Metamorphism
- occurs when hot, chemically active, mineral
laden waters interact w/ a pre-existing rock
- mostly takes place at low pressure and
relatively low temperature
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
4. Shock Metamorphism
- occurs locally around
impact craters and
possibly around some
diatremes
-characterized by
extremely high
temperature and
pressure