QUALITATIVE AND

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative Measures
 Qualitative research is any research that relies
primarily or exclusively on qualitative measures
 Qualitative research (i.e., measures) used to:
 Generate new theories or hypotheses
 Achieve a deep understanding of an issue

 Develop detailed stories to describe a phenomenon

Qualitative and Quantitative Data
 Qualitative data consists of “words”
 Quantitative data consists of “numbers”
 All qualitative data can be coded quantitatively
 All quantitative data is based on qualitative
judgment
Qualitative Data
 Includes any information that can be captured that
is not numerical in nature (Miles & Huberman,
1994)
 In-depth interviews (individual and group)
 Direct observation (respondent is not queried)
 Written documents (existing documents)
Qualitative Traditions
 Ethnography
 studying a phenomenon in the context of its culture
 Phenomenology
 studying how a phenomenon is experienced by
participants
 Field Research
 researcher observes a phenomenon in its natural state
(“in situ”)
 Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
 to develop a theory (“grounded” in observation) about
a phenomenon of interest
Qualitative Methods
 Participant observation
 researcher becomes a participant (i.e., member) in the
culture being observed
 Direct observation
 researcher not a member of the culture being studied but
remains unobtrusive
 Unstructured interviewing
 direct interaction between the researcher and respondent;
no structured interview or set direction
 Case studies
 intensive study of a specific individual or specific context
Table 6-3 Criteria for Judging Research Quality
from a More Qualitative Perspective

Traditional Criteria for Judging Alternative Criteria for Judging

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Internal validity Credibility

External validity Transferability

Reliability Dependability

Objectivity Confirmability
Quality of Qualitative Research
 Credibility
 establishing that the results are credible from the perspective of the
participant
 Transferability
 degree to which results can be generalized to other contexts
 Dependability
 description by the researcher of changes within the context that the
research occurs and how these might affect conclusions
 Confirmability
 degree to which others can confirm or corroborate the results
Unobtrusive Measures
 Indirect Measures
 The researcher collects data without the
participant being aware of it
 Attention must be paid to ethical considerations
 Possibilityof deception
 Invasion of privacy

 No informed consent
Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
 Content Analysis
 Systematic analysis of text in order to identify
patterns
 Thematic analysis of text
 Indexing

 Quantitative descriptive analysis

Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
 Content Analysis (cont’d)
 May involve sampling from the population of
potential texts
 Identification of units of analysis
 Coding of units of analysis
 Limitations
Unobtrusive Measures (cont’d)
 Secondary Analysis of Data
 Re-analysis of quantitative data
 May involve combining information from multiple
data sets
 Can be used for replication or to subject data to
other, more sophisticated analyses
 Limitations
Qualitative Research – some issues
Not everything that can be counted counts, and
not everything that counts can be counted
Albert Einstein
What do you know about
Qualitative Research?
 What have you heard or read about qualitative
research?
 Easy to do
 Not scientific

 Subjective
What do you know about
Qualitative Research?
 What have you heard or read about qualitative
research?
 Inductive: Finding a theory to explain one’s findings
 Interactive research compared to quantitative:
spending time with respondents versus “drive byes.”
 Data collection methods can be somewhat involved
Credibility of Qualitative Inquiry
 Dependent on three distinct but related inquiry
elements:
 Rigorous methods
 fieldwork = yields high quality data – which are
systematically analyzed with attention to issues of
credibility
 Credibility of the researcher
 Dependent on training, experience, track record
 Philosophical belief in the value of qualitative inquiry
 naturalistic inquiry, qualitative
methods , inductive
analysis, purposeful sampling, holistic thinking
Comparing Quantitative &
Qualitative Methodologies
 Which research methodology is represented by
these characteristics (Qual. or quant.)?
 Purpose of the study
 Pose problem/ raise Questions

 Define research population

 Develop time frame

 Collect & analyze data

 Present outcomes
Data Collection
 Once you have identified that a qualitative
methodology best fits your research question,
there are numerous data collection strategies to
select from….
 Some considerations:
 Full & unqualified consent
 Site selection: Can be difficult. Knowing someone can
help get you in
 Should have more than one way of collecting data –
triangulation
 Establishing trust
Data Collection
 Some considerations:
 Access:
 Unqualified access = total access to the research site
 Qualified access = might need to select another research
site/participants
 Informants: insider who knows environment/politics
 Gate keepers (e.g. principal; dept chair, Ad)
 Negotiating: Notes/data belong to you/respondent = confidentiality
 What will you deliver??? Drafts of research writing, final paper,
 Entering with a problem statement does not mean that it will
remain the same throughout the data collection
 Emergent possibilities
Fieldwork
 Possibilities & Pitfalls
 Anxiety producing
 Safe places

 Being unobtrusive
 Researcher wants to be sure not to call attention to
self…blending in is important…those observed should not
even know your are there after a while
 Did you come in with preconceived opinions?
Fieldwork
 Possibilities & Pitfalls
 Establishing & Maintaining rapport
 Rapport: Appearance, speech, behavior, must be
acceptable to research participants
 Know the others’ language
 Nonjudgmental
 Inoffensive
 Patient
 Sense of humor
 CONFIDENTIALITY

 Subjectivity
Fieldwork
 Observations
 How long are you going to be in the field?
 Field notes?

 Videotape?
 Can be highly problematic in schools
Data Collection Types/Aspects
 Participant-Observation (wide range of
possibilities)
 Helps researcher develop “trusted person” status
 Allows researcher to observe how observed person’s
actions correspond to observed person’ words
 Allows researcher to see the unexpected

 Assists in the development of interview questions –

connecting to known behaviors you have observed
Data Collection Types/Aspects
 Continuum of Participant-Observation:
 Mostly observation to mostly participation
 Where on the continuum you place yourself is directly
related to the questions you are asking, context of
study, and your theoretical framework
 Main Goal of Participant-Observation: To
understand the research setting, participants and
their behaviors
Data Collection Types/Aspects
 Participant-Observation Process:
 Systematic observation & detailed recordings of
environment
 Constant analysis of observations – “What’s
happening here?”
 Evidence of personal bias: Am I being judgmental?
Data Collection Types/Aspects
 Observation
 General methods…
 Studying the setting
 Describing it in detail
 “Making the familiar strange.”
 What do you notice about the participants in their natural
settings?
 interactions? Comparing their words/beliefs to their
actions
 Non verbal feedback? Gestures?
Field notes
 Notebook form
 Needs to be detailed & thorough
 Time consuming when done correctly
 Descriptive and analytic
Field notes
 Field notebook – primary recording tool (confidential)
 Describes environment, people, events, activities,
interactions, researcher ideas, reflections, questions,
exploring researcher bias
 After observation, researcher returns to notes to complete
detailed summaries and expand upon observations
 Descriptive and analytic:
 Accuracy without being judgmental
 Such detail that you can visualize the moment a year later
Field Notes
 Poor example of Field Notes:
 “The class was disorderly and noisy”
 Good example of Field Notes:
 “The 5th grade class contained 15 girls and 12 boys.
When I entered they were in groups of 6. One group
of 4 girls were trying to see who could blow the
biggest bubble with their gum. A group of 5 boys
began imitating a martial arts movie they had seen on
TV…”
Field Notes
 Analytic Notes:
 Observer comments
 Observer Comments to researcher – informal statements
the respondent makes
 Daily reflection
 Thoughts, concerns the researcher has with the setting,
study, emerging themes, etc.
 Researcher acknowledges feelings, problems, ideas,
etc.
Interviewing
 Questions:
 Should be reflective of observations
 What did you learn as a participant-observer?
 Developing
questions - Where should your questions
come from?
 Format?
 RAPPORT
 Structured?
 Open Ended?
 Probing?
 Non- Verbal Messages from respondent
Interviewing
 Requires skill and practice
 Types of questions asked (Patton, 2002)
 Experience and behavior interview questions: What
respondents do or have done
 Opinion and value questions: How respondents think
about their behaviors and experiences
 Feeling questions: Questions that elicit how respondents
react emotionally to or feel about their experiences and
opinions
 Continued…
Interviewing
 Types of questions asked (Patton, 2002)
 Knowledge questions: What respondents know about their
worlds
 Sensory questions: elicit descriptions of what and how they
see, hear, touch, taste, smell the world around them
 Background and demographic questions: Quest. That elicit
respondents’ descriptions of themselves
Interviewing
 Other aspects of interviews
 Key informants: possess special knowledge
 May add information that researcher would otherwise not
have access too.
 Can sensitize the researcher to aspects of the particular
culture being investigated
 Possibilitiesof interviews: rich data, etc.
 Possible pitfalls:
 Interruptions
 redirecting
 poor questions
 researchers inability to follow up/probe
Interviewing
 Sequencing of Questions
 facilitates completeness/comprehensiveness
 Interviewing is not for everyone
 Nature of interactions will change
 Strengths/weaknesses

 Need to be a good listener

 Documents
Interviewing
 Where will interview occur?
 A convenient location for respondent?
 When will you meet? Time of day is important- tired /rushed
 How long do you anticipate it will last?
 How often will you meet?
 Audiotaped?
 Interruptions?
 Transcribing interviews-long , but meaningful process
 Documents:
 Curricular guides, newsletters, transcripts – corroborate
observations/findings LEADING TO trustworthiness
Data Analysis
 Organizing what you have seen, heard, and read,
so that you can make sense of what you have
learned.
 Ongoing throughout study:
 permitsresearcher to focus and shape the study as it
proceeds
 Rudimentary Coding Scheme
 Counting or enumerating items means they must
defined and located within data records
 Categorizing; dividing & subdividing

 Field notes are coded, audiotapes are coded

Data Analysis
 Voluminous
 Computer programs
 Trustworthiness (Reflect on data –What is data
telling you?)
 TRIANGULATION of data sources
 Use of multiple data collection techniques = data collected
in 1 way can be cross checked for accuracy with another
 Prevents researcher from accepting to readily the validity
of initial impressions
 Assists in correcting biases that occur when the researcher
is the only observer
Data Analysis
 Trustworthiness (continued)
 Observations, interviews, documents, etc.
 Researcher bias – continual alertness

 Peer debriefer
 someone who reads your field notes, transcriptions,
interpretations
 Member Checks
 data
sources provided to participants for their review,
comments, expansion of thoughts
Telling the Story
 Maintaining confidentiality – Highest priority
 “Writing is a political act” (Glesne & Peshkin):
 Intended and Unintended consequences
 Can respondents be subjected to unwanted publicity?

 Keeping at it….

 Include…Narratives/vignettes/direct quotations …
support the claims one makes in their findings